THE   PROFESSION   OF   CHEMISTRY 


WHAT  INDUSTRY  OWES  TO 
CHEMICAL  SCIENCE 

By  RICHARD  B.  PILCHER  and  FRANK 
BUTLER-JONES,  B.A.,  A.I.C.  With  an 
Introduction  by  Sir  George  Beilby,  LL.  D. , 
F.R.S.  Crown  8vo.  3s.6d.net 

"The  book  is  a  good  one  and  much  wanted.  It  con- 
tains information  accurate  in  itself  and  clearly  stated." 

The  Analyst. 

11  The  work  can  be  recommended  with  confidence  to 
the  general  reader  who  wishes  to  gain  a  comprehensive 
insight  into  the  far-reaching  ramifications  of  chemical 
industry."— Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry. 


THE    PROFESSION 
OF  CHEMISTRY 


BY 

RICHARD   B.   PILCHER 

REGISTRAR    AND    SECRETARY 

OF    THE 
INSTITUTE    OF    CHEMISTRY    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND 


NEW    YORK 

D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY 
25,   PARK   PLACE 


Printed  in  Great  Britain 


PREFACE 

WHEN  a  boy  turns  a  room — probably  his  bed- 
room— into  a  laboratory  and  starts  making 
experiments  the  results  of  which  are  commonly  ob- 
noxious to  the  other  members  of  his  home,  and  when  the 
household  is  startled  by  explosions  and  the  smell  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  penetrates  to  his  father's  study, 
the  family  becomes  alternately  alarmed  and  annoyed  ; 
but  the  head  of  the  house  is  set  wondering  whether  the 
new  enthusiasm  is  only  a  phase  through  which  so  many 
boys  pass,  or  whether  he  has  discovered  an  indication 
of  the  boy's  choice  of  a  calling.  The  question  imme- 
diately occurs  to  the  parent,  "  How  can  the  boy  become 
an  analytical  chemist  ? "  Afterwards,  he  learns  that  the 
adjective  analytical  is  too  restrictive  ;  but  we,. will  deal 
with  that  later. 

Probably  not  one  in  ten  of  those  who,  at  one  time 
or  another,  seem  bent  on  chemistry  as  a  profession 
ultimately  becomes  qualified  to  practise,  but  most  boys 
nowadays  know  something  about  the  science,  and  this 
publication  is  designed  to  let  them,  their  parents 
and  schoolmasters  know  something  about  the  pro- 
fession. 

The  importance  of  the  science  of  chemistry  can 
hardly  be  overrated.  Scarcely  any  other  branch  of 

432047 


vi        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

practical  science  can  claim  so  close  a  connection  with 
the  material  progress  of  mankind,  and  there  is  hardly 
a  Department  of  State  or  other  Public  Authority,  or 
an  industrial  or  commercial  undertaking  of  any  magni- 
tude, which  does  not  benefit  by  its  aid.  So  wide  are  the 
applications  of  the  subject  and  so  deep  are  its  ramifica- 
tions that  it  is  certain  to  hold  a  most  prominent  and 
increasingly  important  position  in  public  affairs,  in 
industry  and  commerce.  For  this  reason,  there  should 
always  be  a  demand  for  chemical  knowledge  of  the 
highest  order. 

The  secretary  of  a  professional  body  receives  en- 
quiries on  many  and  varied  matters  for  the  answers  to 
which  he,  in  turn,  must  often  look  to  others  better 
informed,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  time  accumulates  a 
fund  of  information  to  be  drawn  upon  as  occasion 
arises.  To  decide  how  much  of  that  information  should 
be  included  in  this  book  has  been  not  the  least  difficult 
part  of  the  work. 

Some  things  we  have  to  say  may  appear  too  obvious 
or  too  trite  ;  yet  it  is  often  the  obvious  of  which  we 
need  most  to  be  reminded,  being  so  near  that  it 
escapes  notice.  Apart  from  information,  the  book 
includes  much  in  the  nature  of  advice.  We  are  told 
by  Steele  that  there  is  nothing  which  we  receive  with 
more  reluctance,  and  by  Johnson  that  we  are  never 
more  impatient  of  it  than  when  we  need  it  most. 
All  who  attempt  to  give  advice,  however  good 
their  intentions,  lay  themselves  open  to  criticism. 
Being  very  conscious  of  the  difficulties  of  our  task,  we 


PREFACE  vii 

realise  that  this  first  attempt  to  provide  anything 
approaching  a  comprehensive  account  of  one  of  the 
most  important  of  modern  professions  may,  in  the 
light  of  criticism,  be  improved  upon  in  any  subsequent 
edition. 

Following  this  preface  we  give  a  synopsis  of  the 
education  and  training  recommended  for  the  profession 
of  chemistry,  and  of  the  possible  careers  open  to 
chemists.  For  the  consideration  of  parents,  and  possibly 
of  schoolmasters — if  that  suggestion  is  not  too  pre- 
sumptuous— our  first  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  subject 
of  preliminary  education,  which  must  be  a  matter  for 
serious  thought,  whatever  may  be  the  career  eventually 
selected.  We  then  discuss  the  title  "chemist,"  show- 
ing the  distinction  between  chemists  and  pharmacists, 
and  deal,  in  turn,  with  the  technical  training,  examina- 
tions, and  qualifications  for  the  practice  of  analytical, 
consulting  and  technological  chemistry  ;  with  post- 
graduate training  and  research  ;  and  with  the  societies 
and  institutions  concerned  with  chemical  science. 
Next,  we  consider  the  various  branches  of  practice,  and 
the  prospects  offered  therein,  devote  a  chapter  to  the 
recognised  procedure  of  members  of  the  profession  in 
their  relations  to  one  another  and  to  the  public,  and, 
after  referring  briefly  to  the  prospects  of  women 
chemists,  conclude  with  a  short  record  of  some  of  the 
services  rendered,  by  chemists  in  the  war. 

Our  aim,  therefore,  is  to  review  generally  the  position 
of  the  profession  of  chemistry  ;  but  we  would  remark 
that,  even  while  the  book  has  been  in  preparation,  it 


viii      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

has  been  necessary  to  have  regard  to  the  constantly 
changing  opinions  on  many  of  the  subjects  dealt  with, 
e.g.  education,  technical  training,  and  organisation — 
which  obviously  cannot  be  settled  for  all  time  and  will 
no  doubt  be  modified  with  the  trend  of  future  develop- 
ments. 

The  writer  desires  to  express  his  grateful  thanks 
to  a  few  friends  who  have  read  the  proofs  and 
have  given  him  the  benefit  of  their  advice.  He 
hopes  that  the  book  will  be  useful  to  those  for 
whom  it  is  intended  and  that  it  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  partial  discharge  of  his  obligations  to 
the  profession  which  he  has  had  the  honour  and 
pleasure  to  serve  for  over  twenty-five  years.  It  should 
be  clearly  understood,  however,  that  notwithstand- 
ing his  official  position,  the  views  expressed  herein 
are  not  necessarily  to  be  read  as  bearing  the  authority 
of  the  Council  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry. 

R.  B.  P. 

30  RUSSELL  SQUARE,  LONDON,  W.C.  i. 
January,  1919. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  (A)  THE  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING 
RECOMMENDED  FOR  THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 
AND  (B)  OF  THE  POSSIBLE  CAREERS  FOR  A 
CHEMIST. 

A.  EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING 

General  Education,  on  as  broad  lines  as  possible,  up  to  about  seven- 
teen years  of  age. 

Matriculation  or  other  recognised  Preliminary  Examination,  in- 
cluding English,  Mathematics,  at  least  one  Foreign  Language 
and  one  other  subject. 

Technical  Training,  extending  over  at  least  four  years  day  courses, 
comprising  Chemistry,  Physics,  Mathematics  and  at  least  one 
additional  scientific  subject : — 

(a)  At  a  University,  College,  or  Technical  School ;    or 

(b)  At  least  three  years  at  a  University,  College,  or  Technical 
School,  and  one  year  in  a  suitable  laboratory  or  works. 

In  cases  where  sufficient  means  for  systematic  day  training 
are  not  available  the  student  may  obtain  experience  in  a  labora- 
tory or  works  and  attend  evening  classes  in  the  necessary 
subjects.1 

Qualifications, — A  Degree  in  Science  or  Arts,  including  Honours  in 
Chemistry,  with  Physics  as  chief  subsidiary  subject,  or  a  recog- 
nised College  Diploma. 

The  Associateship  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  (A.I.C.). 
An  Associate  is  recommended  to  join  a  Local  Section  of  the 

1  The  Council  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  will  consider  applications  for  admission 
to  the  Examination  for  the  Associateship  from  Candidates  who  are  not  less  than 
twenty-seven  years  of  age,  provided  (i.)  that  their  cases  are  recommended,  for  special 
consideration,  by  at  least  three  Fellows  of  the  Institute  ;  (ii.)  that  they  have  passed  an 
approved  preliminary  examination  ;  (iii.)  that  they  have  received  systematic  instruc- 
tion, by  day  or  evening  classes,  in  the  prescribed  subjects,  and  have  passed  the  class 
examinations  therein  ;  and  (iv.)  that  they  have  been  engaged  in  the  study  and  practice 
of  chemistry  for  at  least  ten  years. 


x          THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Institute  and,  as  soon  as  means  allow,  one  or  more  of  the 
chemical  societies :  Chemical  Society,  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry,  Society  of  Public  Analysts,  and,  if  possible,  one  or 
more  Societies  interested  in  Chemical  Technology. 

Higher  Qualifications. — Post-graduate  training  (including  research) 
for  a  higher  degree  such  as  M.Sc.,1  or  D.Sc.,  and/or  experience 
in  a  suitable  laboratory  or  works,  or  training  in  chemical  engi- 
neering ;  and 

After  three  years  as  an  Associate  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry — 
qualify  by  examination,  or  otherwise,  for  the  Fellowship  (F.I.C.). 


B.  POSSIBLE  CAREERS  FOR  A  CHEMIST 

(1)  Consulting  Practice,  general  or  specialised  :    Assistant ;    Chief 
Assistant,  with  prospect  of  transferring  to  an  appointment  in 
industry  ;    partnership  ;    independent  practice. 

(2)  Industrial  Practice — 

(a)  Analytical  Chemist :  Junior  Assistant ;  Assistant ;  pos- 
sibly transferring  to  Research  or  to  Plant  Control,  or 
becoming  Chief  Assistant  or  Head  of  Analytical  Laboratory. 

(6)  Research  Chemist :  Junior  Assistant ;  Chief  Assistant ; 
possibly  transferring  to  Plant  Control  or  becoming  Head 
of  Research  Laboratory ;  Partner  or  Director ;  or  establish- 
ing Consulting  Practice. 

(c)  Works    Control    Chemist:     Departmental    Plant    Control; 

Assistant  Manager  ;  Manager  ;  Managing  Director  ; 
possibly  becoming  Partner  or  Director;  or  establishing 
Consulting  Practice. 

(d)  Consulting  Technological  Practice  ;    Chemical  Engineering. 

(3)  Official    Chemical    Appointments. — The     Government    Labora- 
tories and  other  Departmental  Laboratories  :    Junior  Assistant 
Chemist ;     Assistant   Chemist ;     Principal   Assistant   Chemist ; 
Superintending  Chemist ;  Deputy  Chief  Chemist ;  Chief  Chemist. 

1  Probably  the  degree  of  Ph.D.,  or  something  equivalent,   will  also  be   introduced 
into  the  curricula  of  several  British  Universities. 


SYNOPSIS  xi 

Other  Government  appointments,  technical,  educational,  etc. 
(Probably)  Technical  Commissions  with  Navy,  Army,  and  Air 
Force. 

Municipal,  etc. :  Assistant  to  Public  Analyst ;  Public  Analyst ; 
Official  Agricultural  Analyst ;  Gas  Examiner  ;  Water  Examiner ; 
Chemist  in  Public  Health  Laboratory ;  Chemist  to  Sewage 
Rivers  Boards,  etc. 

Public  Institutions  :  Research  and  Analytical  Appointments. 

(4)  Teaching — 

(a)  School :    as  general  -Science  Master  or  Chemistry  Master  (in 

public  or  secondary  school). 

(b)  Technical  Schools,   Medical  Schools,   Agricultural  Colleges, 

etc.:  Assistant  Demonstrator ;  Demonstrator ;  Lecturer 
(general  or  in  a  branch  of  chemistry, — inorganic,  organic, 
physical,  metallurgical,  biological,  etc.)  ;  Lecturer  in 
Technology  ;  Head  of  Department ;  Principal. 

(c)  University  or  College  :  Assistant  Demonstrator  ;  Demonstra- 

tor ;  Lecturer  (general  or  special)  ;  Assistant  Professor ; 
Professor  (general  or  special)  ;  Chair  of  University ;  Dean 
of  Faculty  and  higher  University  appointments ;  Ex- 
aminerships. 

(5)  Employment  combining  two  or  more  of  the  above. 

(6)  Other  employment  in  which  chemical  knowledge  and  ability 

are  advantageous,  though  not  necessarily  the  primary 
factors. 


CONTENTS 


PREFACE 


SYNOPSIS    OF    TRAINING    AND    POSSIBLE    CAREERS    FOR    A 

CHEMIST    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  ix 

PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  .         ....         .         .         i 

General  considerations  ;  English  ;  the  classics  and 
science  ;  early  specialisation  ;  public  indifference  to 
science  ;  preliminary  examinations. 

PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS      .         .         .         »         .         .       16 

The  claim  of  pharmacists  to  the  title  "  chemist  "  ; 
alchemists  ;  apothecaries  ;  druggists  ;  pharmaceutical 
organisation  ;  qualifications  for  pharmacists  and 
"  chemists  and  druggists  "  ;  the  foreign  equivalents  of 
"  pharmacist  "  and  "  chemist  "  ;  definition. 

PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  .         .         .  ~       .         .         .         .40 

Beginnings  and  progress  of  technical  education  ;  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  ;  schemes  of  training  ;  research  ; 
examination  for  A.I.C.  ;  specialised  training. 

PROSPECTS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  PRACTICE  .         .         ..       78 

Branches  of  work  ;  general  considerations. 

PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION     .         ,         .         .         .        .;       96 

Societies  and  institutions  concerned  with  chemistry  ; 
their  work  and  influence. 

PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  AND  OFFICIAL  AGRICULTURAL  ANALYSTS     no 

The  Society  of  Public  Analysts  ;   the  Sale  of  Food  and 
t$H    Drugs  Acts  ;    public  analysts  and  their  duties  ;    official 
Agricultural  Analysts  ;  the  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs 
Act. 

PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE         .  ;      .         .         .         .         -.     130 

Fees  ;  trading  advertisements  and  certificates  ;  solicit- 
ing practice  ;  legal  evidence. 


xiv       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 


PAGE 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY     .......     141 

The  field  of  work  for  chemists  in  industry ;  analysts, 
research  chemists,  control  chemists;  examination  in 
chemical  technology  ;  syllabus  discussed  ;  general  con- 
siderations of  British  chemical  industry ;  consulting 
technologists. 

CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE       .         .         .         .         .         .172 

The  Government  and  science  ;  the  Government  Labora- 
tory ;  Government  Departmental  Laboratories ;  official 
chemical  appointments ;  chemistry  in  its  relation  to 
"  key  "  industries  of  importance  to  the  State. 

TEACHING          .          .          .          .          .          .  7  183 

Qualifications  and  prospects  of  teachers  of  chemistry. 

WOMEN  IN  PROFESSIONAL  CHEMISTRY         .         .         .         .189 

CHEMISTS  IN  WAR    ........     190 

INDEX      .         .         .         .         .  '       .         .         .         .         .     197 


THE  PROFESSION  OF 
CHEMISTRY       • 

PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION 

| 

A>  we  have  indicated  in  the  preface,  this  chapter 
has  been  written  for  the  consideration  of  parents 
whose  boys  are  still  at  school :   the  importance  of  the 
subject  must  be  our  excuse  for  dealing  with  it  at  some 
length. 

Chemistry  as  the  science  which  treats  of  the  com- 
position of  matter  is  one  of  the  chief  keys  to  the  study 
of  nature.  It  is  indispensable  in  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures and  ancillary  to  many  other  branches  of 
science.  The  training  of  the  mental  faculties  of  those 
who  intend  to  practise  in  chemistry  should  be  no  less 
comprehensive  than  that  prescribed  for  any  other 
learned  profession.  The  boy  who  has  a  liking  for 
science  should  not  be  allowed,  therefore,  at  too  early 
a  stage  to  become  absorbed  in  it  to  the  detriment 
of  his  general  development.  A  good  general  education 
is  essential  in  every  profession — using  the  term  pro- 
fession in  the  limited  sense  in  which  it  applied  to 
medicine,  the  law,  architecture,  and  the  like — and  it  is 
advisable  that  anyone  who  intends  to  follow  a  profes- 
sional career  should  remain  at  school  until  at  least  the 
age  of  seventeen  years — the  usual  age  for  passing  the 
Matriculation  or  Entrance  Examinations  to  the  Uni- 
versities. 


2  tit    ,THEt  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

In  recent  years /the  need  for  overhauling  our  school 
iystem  fci$  ,be*eri  much  discussed.  The  present  demand 
in  all  affairs  of  life  is  for  practical  good  sense  and 
trained  intellectual  capacity.  The  typical  British 
public-school  boy,  whatever  his  shortcomings  may  be, 
has  developed  a  straightforward  and  sturdy  indi- 
vidualism invaluable  to  those  who  are  destined  eventu- 
ally to  occupy  positions  of  responsibility  and  control ; 
but  a  measure  of  education  has  become  the  common 
heritage  of  all  classes,  and  the  public-school  boy  has 
to  face  the  ever-increasing  competition  of  those  from 
the  modern  schools,  to  whom  the  earning  of  their  living 
is  an  absolute  necessity.  With  the  introduction  of 
free  primary  education,  the  demand  has  arisen  for  a 
higher  standard  of  both  general  and  special  knowledge 
in  every  grade  of  social  life. 

The  public-school  curriculum  covers  a  comprehen- 
sive programme,  including,  in  most  cases,  religious 
and  ethical  instruction  and  the  inculcation  of  a  respect 
for  law  and  order  ;  English  language  and  literature  ; 
Latin,  and  sometimes  Greek ;  French  and,  if  no 
Greek,  probably  another  modern  language ;  history 
and  geography ;  mathematics  ;  science ;  drawing  ; 
physical  drill  and  athletics.  The  instruction  given  in 
each  subject  may  be  little  or  much  ;  but,  in  any  case, 
neither  ethics,  languages,  science,  nor  athletics  should 
be  neglected. 

Prior  to  the  sixteenth  century — for  those  who  were 
educated  at  all — Latin  was  the  primary  subject  and 
few  youths  understood  much  of  their  own  mother- 
tongue.  Thus,  John  Palsgrave  wrote,  in  1540,  that 
scholars  in  the  University  "  who  could  write  an  epistle 
quite  Latin-like,  and  thereto  speak  Latin  "...  were 
yet  .  *  .  "  not  able  to  express  their  conceit  in  their 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  3 

vulgar  tongue."  To  write  in  English  on  subjects  of 
scholarship  was  not  altogether  approved,  though  books 
written  in  Latin  were  occasionally  translated.  In  1551, 
however,  Thomas  Wilson  in  his  Art  of  Rhetoric  boldly 
advocated  that  the  writing  of  genuine  English  should 
first  be  learned  among  all  lessons  ;  and  in  1557  Sir 
John  Cheke  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Thomas  Hoby  also 
advised  the  writing  of  pure  English,  "  unmixed  and 
unmangled  with  borrowing  of  other  tongues."1 

The  study  of  our  language  is  even  now  generally 
treated  so  lightly  that  comparatively  few  are  able  to 
write  good  English  until  they  are  considerably  advanced 
in  years.  Essay  writing  may  be  practised  occasionally ; 
but  in  many  cases  the  opportunities  for  composition 
are  limited  to  the  writing  of  exercises  in  general  sub- 
jects and  answering  examination  papers.  The  study 
of  literature,  on  the  other  hand,  is  promoted  by  the 
reading  of  selected  plays  of  Shakespeare,  by  the 
memorising  of  poems,  and  reading  works  of  well-known 
authors  as  holiday  tasks.  It  is  obvious  that  good 
composition  cannot  be  expected  of  a  boy  until  he  has 
acquired  knowledge  and  formed  definite  ideas  ;  yet 
we  suggest  that  the  accurate  use  of  language  is  not 
sufficiently  insisted  on.  Good  reading — especially  the 
reading  of  biographies  and  essays,  when  youths  are 
old  enough  to  appreciate  them — is  to  be  commended 
as  tending  to  induce  the  habit  of  methodical  thought 
and  expression  in  writing  and  speaking. 

Latin  as  an  educational  subject  is  not  so  fully  appre- 
ciated as  formerly,  and  much  of  the  time  which  was 
allotted  to  the  classics  is  now  devoted  to  more  directly 
utilitarian  subjects.  The  Institute  of  Chemistry  was 

1  The  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Subjects  in  England. 
Foster  Watson. 


4          THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

one  of  the  last  of  the  professional  bodies  to  make  Latin 
optional  instead  of  compulsory  in  the  Preliminary 
Examination,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  majority 
of  the  University  professors  of  chemistry,  at  that  time, 
were  really  opposed  to  the  change  until  the  pressure  of 
outside  opinion  compelled  it.  However,  they  felt 
obliged  to  advise  the  change  and  the  Council  of  the 
Institute  adopted  it,  though  with  reluctance,  in  order 
to  fall  in  with  the  practice  of  the  modern  Universities 
— classics  being  no  longer  obligatory  at  Matriculation. 

The  advocates  of  a  classical  education  hold  that 
recruits  from  the  "  modern  side  "  are  often  lacking 
in  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  English  and  the 
science  of  words ;  their  vocabularies  are  limited 
and,  consequently,  they  not  only  fail  to  express  them- 
selves concisely,  but  also  experience  difficulty  in 
grasping  the  meanings  of  unfamiliar  terms,  which  are 
clear  to  those  possessing  even  an  elementary  know- 
ledge of  Latin  and  Greek.  Indeed,  it  has  been  re- 
marked by  University  Professors  that  students  who 
have  an  acquaintance  with  the  classics  are  quicker  in 
learning  generally. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  ^  contended  that  modern 
languages  afford  equally  good  mental  training  ;  that 
lucidity  of  construction  can  be  as  easily  cultivated  by 
the  study  of  modern  authors,  and  that  an  acquaintance 
with  modern  foreign  languages  is  more  useful  as  giving 
access  to  the  advance  of  knowledge  in  other  countries, 
and,  therefore,  to  be  preferred.1 

The  question  whether  classical  education  is  really 
useful  is  an  old  one,  and  may  be  pursued  a  little  further 

1  The  Report  oj  the  Committee  appointed  by  the  Prime  Minister  to 
enquire  into  the  position  of  Modern  Languages  in  the  Educational 
System  of  Great  Britain — [Cd.  9036  :  1918] — deals  very  fully  with 
this  part  of  the  subject.  Some  scholars  believe,  however,  that  Latin 
will  come  again  into  common  use  as  a  universal  language. 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  5 

in  order  to  consider  it  in  another  aspect.  Classical  litera- 
ture provides  a  mental  association  with  some  of  the 
wisest  and  greatest  thinkers  of  the  past,  from  whose 
teaching  our  mental  equipment  is  largely  derived,  while 
its  influence  works  insensibly,  yet  perceptibly,  in  the 
mass  of  well-educated  men.  Bosweil  discussed  the  ques- 
tion with  Johnson  ;*•  Arnold,  of  Rugby,  who  was  largely 
instrumental  in  popularising  the  teaching  of  modern 
languages,  modern  history,  and  mathematics  as  parts 
of  the  regular  school  course,  dilated  upon  it  in  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Education.2  Ben  Jonson  tells  us 
that  Shakespeare  "  had  little  Latin,  and  less  Greek  "  ; 
but  the  standard  by  which  Jonson  judged  was  un- 
doubtedly very  high  and  would  have  applied  equally 
well  to  the  great  majority  of  educated  men  of  his  time 
and  since.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  said  of  Shakespeare 

1  "  Dr.  Johnson  and  I  (Bosweil)  took  a  sculler  at  the  Temple 
Stairs,  and  set  out  for  Greenwich.  I  asked  him  if  he  really  thought 
a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  an  essential  requisite 
to  a  good  education.  Johnson.  'Most  certainly,  sir;  for  those  who 
know  them  have  a  very  great  advantage  over  those  who  do  not. 
Nay,  sir,  it  is  wonderful  what  a  difference  learning  makes  upon 
people  even  in  the  common  intercourse  of  life,  which  does  not 
appear  to  be  much  connected  with  it.'  '  And  yet,'  said  I,  '  people 
go  through  the  world  very  well,  and  carry  on  the  business  of  life  to 
good  advantage,  without  learning.'  Johnson.  '  Why,  sir,  that  may 
be  true  in  cases  where  learning  cannot  possibly  be  of  any  use  ;  for 
instance,  this  boy  rows  us  as  well  without  learning  as  if  he  could 
sing  the  song  of  Orpheus  to  the  Argonauts  who  were  the  first  sailors.' 
He  then  called  to  the  boy,  '  What  would  you  give,  my  lad,  to  know 
about  the  Argonauts  ?  '  '  Sir,'  said  the  boy,  '  I  would  give  what  I 
have.'  Johnson  was  much  pleased  with  his  answer,  and  we  gave 
him  a  double  fare.  Dr.  Johnson  then  turned  to  me,  '  Sir,'  said  he, 
'  a  desire  of  knowledge  is  the  natural  feeling  of  mankind,  and  every 
human  being  whose  mind  is  not  debauched,  will  be  willing  to  give 
all  that  he  ha*s  to  get  knowledge.'  " — Bosweil,  Life  of  Johnson. 

On  another  occasion  (speaking  of  Garrick)  Dr.  Johnson  said  : 
"  He  has  not  Latin  enough.  He  finds  out  Latin  by  the  meaning, 
rather  than  the  meaning  by  the  Latin." 

8  "  Expel  Greek  and  Latin  from  your  schools  and  you  confine 
the  view  of  the  existing  generation  to  themselves  and  their  im- 
mediate predecessors  ;  you  will  cut  off  so  many  centuries  of  the 
world's  experience,  and  place  us  in  the  same  state  as  if  the  human 
race  had  first  come  into  existence  in  the  year  1500." 


6          THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

that  "  he  had  Latin  enough  to  grammaticise  his 
English/'  His  construction  was  classical,  and  he  had 
at  call  an  extraordinarily  extensive  vocabulary  largely 
drawn  from  the  classics.  It  is  the  case,  however,  that 
many  men  of  light  and  learning,  men  who  have 
attained  distinction  in  science  and  in  statecraft,  have 
become  eminent  without  having  received  a  classical 
education,  though  it  is  probable  that  such  men  felt  the 
need  of  it  more  than  the  average. 

Charles  Lamb  tells  us  of  the  fine  old  pedagogues  who 
believed  that  all  learning  was  contained  in  the  lan- 
guages which  they  taught,  and  who  despised  every 
other  acquirement  as  superficial  and  useless.  Yet  it  is 
rather  surprising  to  find  that  he  also  wrote,  over  a 
century  ago,  "  The  modern  schoolmaster  is  expected  to 
know  a  little  of  everything,  because  his  pupil  is  required 
not  to  be  entirely  ignorant  of  anything.  He  must  be 
superficially,  if  I  may  so  say,  omniscient.  He  is  to 
know  something  of  pneumatics,  of  chemistry,  of  what- 
ever is  curious,  or  proper  to  excite  the  attention  of  the 
youthful  mind  ;  an  insight  into  mechanics  is  desirable, 
with  a  touch  of  statistics ;  the  quality  of  soils,  etc., 
botany,  the  constitution  of  his  country,  cum  multis 
aliis." 

An  Eton  master  has  recently  stated  that  in  his 
experience  the  boys  who  are  best  at  classics  are  also 
best  at  science  ;  but,  perhaps,  this  experience  is  not 
very  general.  With  all  our  predilection  for  the  classics, 
our  great  classical  scholars  are  comparatively  few  ; 
and  while  occasionally  our  men  of  science  show  a  con- 
siderable acquaintance  with  the  classics,  seldom  does 
a  classical  scholar  claim  any  special  knowledge  of 
science. 

The  progress  of  science  and  its  introduction  into  the 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  7 

school  curriculum  have  raised  the  question  in  another 
form  :  not  so  much  its  importance  to  the  individual 
as  its  importance  to  the  State.  While  it  is  held  that 
the  extent  of  the  study  of  classics  has  hitherto  been 
out  of  proportion  to  its  value  as  mental  exercise 
compared  with  that  of  science  subjects,  yet  in  the 
secondary  and  private  schools  and  in  the 'majority  of 
the  Universities  a  marked  advance  has  been  made 
in  the  direction  of  science  teaching  during  the  past 
seventy  years.  It  has  developed  in  many  a  real  en- 
thusiasm for  knowledge  of  natural  phenomena  ;  has 
encouraged  observation,  intelligent  enquiry  and 
criticism ;  and,  perhaps,  has  afforded  a  relaxation 
from  less  attractive  tasks.  Its  introduction,  however, 
was  gradual,  not  only  because,  at  first,  there  were  few 
teachers,  but  also  on  account  of  the  alterations  which 
had  to  be  made  to  allow  time  for  the  study  of  the 
new  subjects.  In  most  cases,  the  time  devoted  to 
classical  languages  had  to  be  curtailed  to  make  room 
for  chemistry,  physics,  geology,  botany,  and  the  like. 

The  difficulty  of  generalising  on  educational  matters 
can  hardly  be  fully  realised  except  by  those  who  have 
to  educate.  The  schools  must  of  necessity  have  some 
regard  to  the  temperament,  bent  and  capabilities 
of  individuals,  since  it  is  neither  possible  nor  desir- 
able that  they  should  all  be  cast  in  one  mould.  In 
most  cases  there  is  a  mental  bias  towards  some  form  of 
knowledge  which  can  be  strengthened  by  judicious 
encouragement.  It  is  generally  agreed,  we  think,  that 
so  long  as  steady  progress  can  be  made,  the  education 
should  be  as  "  all-round  "  as  possible,  although  it  is  not 
unusual  to  allow  each  individual  a  choice  of  subjects 
in  the  later  stages  of  school  life,  in  order  that  scope  may 
be  given  to  variations  in  natural  aptitude. 

The  wisdom  of  differentiating  between  classical  and 


8         THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

modern  sides  in  schools  has  often  been  questioned.  In 
any  case,  if  differentiation  is  desirable,  it  should 
reasonably  provide  for  literary,  scientific,  commercial 
and  perhaps  other  tendencies.  The  objection  raised  is 
that  such  classification  is  commonly  determined  at  a 
period  of  development  in  the  individual  when  an  en- 
forced broadening  of  culture,  if  practicable,  would,  in 
the  long  run,  carry  him  further  than  a  too  narrow  con- 
centration on  a  few  subjects. 

There  is  a  danger  that  early  specialisation  may  inter- 
fere with  general  development,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  is  wise  to  encourage  it  at  the  expense  of 
other  attainments  for  the  acquisition  of  which  there  is 
little  opportunity  when  once  the  professional  train- 
ing has  commenced. 

In  every  intellectual  calling,  however,  specialisation 
at  the  right  time  is  not  only  profitable  to  the  individual 
but,  in  the  higher  stages,  highly  desirable  in  the 
interests  of  the  advancement  of  national  prestige  and 
efficiency.  The  difficulty  lies  in  deciding  the  right 
time  for  and  the  manner  of  its  introduction. 

When  events  of  the  war  emphasised  the  necessity  of 
introducing  science  as  an  integral  part  of  the  education 
of  the  coming  generation,  authoritative  bodies  showed 
that,  although  the  effects  of  the  application  of  science 
to  practical  purposes  were  evident,  and  the  scientific 
workers  of  the  nation  were  as  capable  as  those  of  any 
other  country,  full  advantage  had  not  been  taken  of 
their  discoveries ;  that  scientific  endeavour  had  not  been 
sufficiently  encouraged ;  that  the  co-operation  of  science 
with  industry  had  not  been  properly  developed,  and 
that  our  educational  system  had  not  made  adequate 
provision  for  science  teaching.  They  contended,  more- 
over, that  all  attempts  to  induce  the  public  schools  to 
give  greater  attention  to  the  matter  would  fail  so 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  9 

long  as  the  public  services  maintained  a  preference  for 
classical  attainments  in  the  competitive  examinations. 
The  Government  was,  therefore,  urged  to  effect  reforms 
in  the  public  examinations,  with  the  result  that,  when 
a  Treasury  Committee  was  appointed  to  deal  with  the 
matter,  they  recommended  a  complete  change  in  the 
system  of  examinations  for  Class  I  of  the  Home  Civil 
Service.  The  new  scheme  includes,  among  the  subjects 
to  be  taken  by  all  candidates,  "  questions  on  general 
principles,  methods,  and  applications  of  science,"  and 
among  the  optional  subjects, 'under  Mathematics  and 
Science,  a  fair  and  liberal  choice  for  those  who  elect  to 
be  examined  in  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  geology, 
physiology,  zoology,  and  engineering,  provided  that 
they  produce  satisfactory  evidence  of  laboratory  train- 
ing in  an  institution  of  University  rank.  Thus  there 
is  some  probability  that  a  reaction  in  favour  of 
science  may  be  found  soon  in  the  curricula  of  the 
public  schools.1 

Most  subjects  provide  mental  discipline,  yet  the 
average  individual  cannot  take  a  real  interest  in,  let 
alone  be  enthusiastic  over,  every  subject.  This  is 
admitted,  but  it  is  unfair,  to  say  the  least,  to  allow 
one  class  to  have  a  marked  advantage  over  another 
in  the  public  examinations,  and  it  is  unwise,  since  the 
result  has  exposed  a  lack  of  an  important  class  in  our 
administrative  offices. 

It  is  sometimes  questioned  whether  any  subject  is 
advanced  by  its  being  made  obligatory  in  an  examina- 
tion ;  but  if  attention  to  a  subject  is  forced  on  a 
number  of  pupils  there  is  a  greater  chance  of  rinding 
some  who  will  be  attracted  to  it. 

1  See  the  publications  of  the  British  Science  Guild  and  of  the 
Committee  on  the  Neglect  of  Science  (1916);  also  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  appointed  to  enquire  into  the  position  of  Natural  Science  in 
the  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain.  [Cd.  9011.] 


to        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

One  reason  for  advocating  the  claims  of  science, 
moreover,  appears  not  to  have  been  advanced  so 
forcibly  as  to  secure  sufficient  prominence  in  the  dis- 
cussion, and  that  is  the  imperative  necessity  of  pro- 
viding well -trained  recruits  for  modern  professions 
brought  into  existence  by  the  progress  of  scientific 
discovery.  To  teach  boys  and  girls  to  appreciate 
nature,  to  excite  their  inquisitiveness,  to  awaken  their 
imagination,  and  by  easy  stages  to  lead  them  to  the 
serious  study  of  natural  phenomena  must  inevitably 
tend  to  attract  to  such  professions  a  greater  number 
of  those  who  are  destined  to  become  leaders  of  scientific 
thought.  Such  leaders  are  so  essential  to  our  national 
existence  that  to  ignore  their  importance  courts  certain 
disaster  in  times  of  crisis,  while  to  neglect  taking 
advantage  of  the  assistance  of  such  leaders,  refusing 
to  recognise  their  ability,  discourages  the  pursuit  of 
discovery  and  invention  and  much  that  makes  for 
material  progress.  Seeing,  then,  how  the  welfare  of 
humanity  under  present  conditions  is  dependent  on 
such  professions  and  how  far-reaching  an  influence 
they  exercise  on  the  happiness,  prosperity  and  safety 
of  the  public,  to  persist  in  the  policy  of  leaving  affairs 
of  State  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  literati  is 
assuredly  shortsighted  and  dangerous. 

The  demand  for  more  science  in  general  education 
was  not  necessarily  associated  with  the  idea  of  neglect- 
ing classical  study  and  literature,  but  it  was  made  in 
order  to  secure  that  all  classes  of  the  community  should 
be  given  the  opportunity  of  knowing  sufficient  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  mechanics,  physics,  chemis- 
try, and  biology  to  enable  them  to  appreciate  their  value 
in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life.  A  more  general  acceptance 
of  that  view  would  do  much  to  counteract  the  apparent 
apathy  of  the  public  towards  matters  scientific. 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  II 

The  fact  that  occasionally  teachers  in  the  Colleges 
complain  that  boys  who  have  taken  science  at  school 
have  much  to  unlearn  or  forget  before  they  can  make 
real  progress,  rather  implies  inferior  tuition  than  an 
argument  against  school  science.  When  the  teaching 
of  science  is  directed  to  a  useful  acquaintance  with 
fundamental  principles,  with  illustrations  '  of  their 
practical  applications,  it  may  be  made  an  important 
part  of  a  liberal  education,  while  it  tends  to  the  dis- 
covery here  and  there  of  an  enthusiast  who  will  have  a 
definite  idea  with  regard  to  his  choice  of  a  career.  Very 
few  of  the  headmasters  of  public  schools  are  "  science 
men  "  ;  the  idea  that  the  majority  should  be  science 
men  cannot  be  generally  accepted,  but  it  is  hoped  that 
the  proportion  will  increase  and  that  the  teaching  of 
science  will  be  steadily  developed  on  practical  lines  ; 
also  that  the  number  of  scholarships  in  science  may  be 
extended  to  encourage  boys  to  proceed  to  higher 
training. 

In  a  presidential  address  delivered  before  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  on  ist  March,  1916,  Sir  James 
Dobbie  summed  up  the  position  as  follows  : — 

A  more  general  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  of  scientific 
method  and  of  scientific  facts  has  become  one  of  the 
necessities  of  our  national  existence,  and  the  need  must  be 
met  if  we  are  to  continue  to  hold  our  place  in  the  world. 
But  it  appears  to  me  that  the  demand  which  is  sometimes 
put  forward  that  science  must  henceforth  be  the  dominant 
factor  in  education  confuses  the  real  issue  and  needlessly 
arouses  opposition  to  the  reforms  which  are  essential. 
Surely  what  is  wanted  is  not  education  in  which  science  or 
any  other  subject  is  predominant,  but  education  which 
embraces  all  the  elements  that  are  necessary  for  stimulating 
and  developing  the  various  faculties  of  the  mind.  Such  an 
education  must  include  science,  not  a  smattering,  but  a 
training  as  thorough  and  as  continuous  as  that  now  devoted 
to  linguistic  studies,  and  education  on  these  lines  should  be 


12        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

continued  until  the  proper  age  for  specialisation  arrives. 
By  that  time  the  natural  bent  of  the  pupil  will  have  asserted 
itself  and,  if  no  extraneous  inducements  are  held  out  to  him 
to  choose  one  side  of  the  school  rather  than  the  other,  it 
may  safely  be  predicted  that  at  least -as  many  will  choose 
the  scientific  as  the  classical  side.  In  any  case,  all  will 
have  received  the  elements  of  a  scientific  education  as  well 
as  of  a  classical  education. 

A  parent  or  guardian  can  rarely  be  certain  of  select- 
ing a  calling  which  will  be  acceptable  to  an  individual 
until  the  education  of  that  individual  has  begun  to 
make  a  marked  impression  on  his  character  arid  in- 
clinations. It  is,  therefore,  safer  in  all  cases,  and  more 
likely  to  be  productive  of  satisfactory  results,  if  he  is 
educated  on  as  broad  lines  as  possible  up  to  the  thres- 
hold of  manhood,  bringing  out  the  best  that  is  in  him, 
without  particular  reference  to  his  future  career.  The 
broadex  the  basis  of  his  education,  the  better  will  be  his 
general  self-development  and  the  greater  the  likelihood 
of  discovering  his  special  bent.  To  be  a  good  runner 
or  good  boxer  needs  something  more  than  running  and 
boxing  :  the  whole  body  must  be  trained  to  secure 
efficiency.  Similarly,  a  sound  general  education  is 
necessary  for  the  race  and  the  contest  of  life. 

Circumstances  impel  us  at  times  to  seek  the  lawyer 
or  the  medical  man  :  in  legal  and  health  matters  most 
of  us  have  some  idea  of  the  limits  of  our  own  know- 
ledge and  have  sense  enough  to  realise  when  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  professional  advice  ;  but  the  time 
has  been  slow  in  coming — though  it  is  coming — when 
every  man  in  commerce  and  industry  will  understand 
enough  of  science  to  enable  him  to  take  full  advantage 
of  the  services  of  those  who  have  made  it  their  special 
study. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  general  ignorance  of 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  13 

the  public  on  scientific  matters  is  due  to  the  lack  of 
popular  writers  on  such  matters,  and  that  the  public 
would  take  more  interest  in  science  if  they  knew  more 
about  it  ;  but  the  fact  is  that  they  do  not  want  to  know 
about  it.  It  is  not  easy  to  popularise  science,  for  we 
cannot  force  an  individual  to  take  a  real  interest  in 
what  he  does  not  understand  any  more  than  we  can 
force  him  to  learn  to  play  the  violin  ;  if  he  does  not  like 
it,  he  will  never  play  it  nor  desire  to  listen  to  the 
performance  of  others.  When  a  matter  of  scientific 
importance  is  reported  to  the  Press,  the  ordinary  reader 
seldom  gets  further  than  the  heading  ;  if  a  public 
lecture  on  a  scientific  subject  is  announced,  the 
ordinary  man  will  not  go  to  it  or,  if  he  does,  will  not 
understand  much  of  it  and  will  soon  forget  all  about 
it.  This  is  not  always  the  fault  of  the  lecturer,  who 
must  assume  that  the  majority  of  his  audience  have 
some  fundamental  knowledge,  or  his  time  will  be 
mainly  occupied  with  preliminaries.  The  only  hope 
for  a  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  general  run  of  the 
people  towards  science  lies  in  the  introduction  of  the 
elements  of  such  subjects  as  mechanics  and  chemistry 
as  a  part  of  the  usual  school  curriculum.  However, 
when  we  come  to  consider  the  fact  that  some  form  of 
instruction  in  science  is  given  in  seventeen  Univer- 
sities, over  250  technical  colleges  and  institutions,  and 
over  600  public  and  secondary  schools  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  there  is  every  indication  that  science 
will  receive  still  greater  attention  and  encouragement 
in  the  future,  we  do  not  despair  of  seeing  less  in- 
difference to  it  ;  though  there  will  be  difficulty  in 
arousing  enthusiasm  on  subjects  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  the  lay  mind,  until  reforms  of  which  we 
now  begin  to  see  some  promise  have  been  clearly 
established. 


14       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

The  Universities  provide  systematic  courses  for 
Degrees  in  Science,  and  many  of  the  technical  Colleges 
provide  instruction  by  day  or  evening  classes  up  to  a 
similar  standard.  At  a  large  number  of  the  public 
schools  provision  has  been  made  for  science  teaching 
up  to  Intermediate  University  standard  ;  they  possess 
well-equipped  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  for 
practical  work,  by  which  the  interest  of  the  pupils  is 
forcibly  aroused,  with  the  result  that  an  increasing 
number  of  boys  are  attracted  to  chemistry  as  a  pro- 
fession. The  majority  of  the  boys  in  secondary  schools 
are  trained  in  science  subjects,  and  the  teaching  is 
steadily  improving  in  efficiency  and  method. 

In  this  connection,  we  may  mention  that  in  the 
Pass  Lists  of  the  years  1913  and  1914  of  the  Inter- 
mediate Science  Examination  of  the  University  of 
London  the  names  of  sixty  Secondary  Schools  appeared 
against  the  names  of  successful  candidates.1 

The  progress  made  in  technical  educational  matters 
has  hitherto  been  slow  but  steady  :  the  legislature  is 
now  extending  the  facilities  for  technical  education 
and  providing  substantial  funds  for  research. 

When  the  individual  has  determined  on  a  career  in 
chemistry,  he  should  acquire  sufficient  knowledge  of  the 

1  However,  it  should  be  noted  that  a  recently  published 
pamphlet  on  Education  :  Secondary  and  University,  by  Sir  Frederick 
G.  Kenyon,  President  of  the  British  Academy,  embodying  a  report 
of  conferences  between  the  Council  for  Humanistic  Studies  and  the 
Conjoint  Board  of  Scientific  Societies,  contains  the  following 
resolution : 

"  A  clear  distinction  in  kind  between  the  first-year  studies  of  a 
University  in  any  faculty  and  the  upper  form  studies  of  a  school  is 
a  fundamental  principle  of  education.  A  school  year  should, 
therefore,  in  no  case  be  reckoned  as  the  equivalent  of  a  University 
year,  and  the  practice  of  allowing  pupils  to  present  themselves  for 
a  University  examination,  beyond  the  Matriculation,  before  or 
upon  entrance  to  a  University  is  to  be  deprecated  as  confusing  the 
educational  functions  of  school  and  University  and  leading  to  an 
inappropriate  type  of  teaching  at  both." 


PRELIMINARY  EDUCATION  15 

subject  to  enable  him  to  enter  on  the  higher  technical 
training  for  which  provision  is  made  in  the  Universities 
and  Colleges.  He  will  be  required  to  matriculate  or 
pass  a  college  entrance  examination  before  he  can  be 
admitted  to  the  courses  for  a  Degree  or  a  Diploma. 
For  registration  as  a  Student  of  the  Institute  of 
Chemistry — the  qualifying  Body  for  chemists  other 
than  pharmaceutical  —  he  will  be  called'  upon  to 
produce  a  certificate  of  having  passed  an  approved 
Preliminary  Examination  in  (a)  English  Language  ; 
(6)  Elementary  Mathematics  ;  (c)  at  least  one  foreign 
language,  and  (if  not  more  than  one  language)  (d) 
Higher  Mathematics  or  some  other  approved  subject.1 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  although  only  one 
foreign  language  is  compulsory  in  the  Preliminary 
Examination  for  the  Institute,  a  useful  knowledge  of 
French  and  another  language  is  expected  in  the  Exam- 
ination for  the  Associateship  (A.I.C.),  and  this  require- 
ment is  also  usual  in  the  University  Examinations  for 
the  Degree  of  B.Sc.  A  working  knowledge  of  German 
is  practically  essential  to  chemists,  in  view  of  the  ex- 
tensive chemical  literature  published  in  that  language. 

While  a  good  general  education  increases  the  chances 
of  success  of  the  average  individual,  defective  general 
education  in  a  professional  man  is  a  serious  hindrance 
and  is  likely  to  bring  discredit  on  his  calling.  For  all 
professional  work  the  first  essential  is  the  production 
of  good  men  with  high  ideals,  and  the  duty  of  pro- 
ducing such  men  rests  very  largely  with  the  schools. 
The  aim  should  be  to  secure  an  education  which 
will  exercise  and  cultivate  the  mental  faculties, 
strengthen  the  character,  the  will,  and  the  judgment 
of  every  citizen,  and  thus  contribute  to  the  strengthen- 
ing of  the  character  of  the  State. 

1  See  Regulations  of  the  Institute  oj  Chemistry. 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS 

IT  must  be  understood  that  the  main  purpose  of 
this  book  is  to  deal  with  the  education,  technical 
training  and  professional  work  of  analytical,  consult- 
ing, and  technological  chemists,  and  teachers  of 
chemistry — not  of  pharmacists,  dispensing  chemists, 
or  druggists. 

The  fact  that  the  title  chemist  is  used  for  the  two 
distinct  callings  acts  detrimentally  to  the  former  class, 
for  the  reason  that  the  general  public  know  less  of 
then:  work  and  imagine  all  who  call  themselves  chemists 
to  be  associated  with  pharmacy.  It  is  to  be  deplored 
that  such  chemists  will  need,  for  some  time  yet,  con- 
stantly to  explain  that  they  are  not  pharmacists,  and 
as  this  is  a  subject  on  which  the  student  should  be 
informed,  a  digression  will  be  made  in  order  to 
emphasise  the  distinction  between  those  who  practise 
in  pharmacy  and  those  who  practise  in  chemistry 
applied  to  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Pharmacists  commonly  base  their  claim  to  the  title 
chemist  on  the  declaration  of  Paracelsus  (1493-1541) 
— who  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  last  of  the 
alchemists — that  "  the  true  use  of  chemistry  is  not  to 
make  gold  but  to  prepare  medicines  "  ;  but,  apart 
from  the  circumstance  that  Basil  Valentine  (circa 
1450)  is  also  credited  with  having  first  suggested  the 
use  of  chemical  preparations  in  medicine,  chemistry 
was  studied  before  Paracelsus,  and  his  authority 
cannot  be  accepted  for  confining  the  science  to  such  a 

16 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  17 

limited  sphere.  The  science  may  be  said  to  have 
originated  in  its  applications  to  the  arts  and  manu- 
factures by  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

The  origin  of  the  word  chemistry  is  much  disputed  ; 
but  it  is  held  that  from  Egypt  we  have  the  earliest 
known  record  of  a  chemist,  Zosimus  of  Chemmis, 
"  whose  writings  are  clearly  on  chemical  subjects 
and  whose  drawings  are  clearly  of  chemical  ap- 
paratus/'1 From  Egypt,  too,  we  have  the  earliest 
known  records  of  many  industries :  for  instance, 
various  branches  of  husbandry  and  its  correlated 
industries,  including  brewing  and  distilling,  weaving  (of 
flax,  silk,  and  wool)  and  the  production  of  leather  and 
parchment,  oil,  perfumes,  and  spices.  Soap  was  made 
from  olive  oil  and  potash,  the  latter  being  obtained  from 
alkaline  plants  growing  on  maritime  marshes.  Natron 
(soda),  too,  was  used  in  embalming  operations.  From 
Egypt,  also,  we  have  records  of  dyeing,  e.g.  scarlet  or 
crimson  (from  cochineal)  and  purple  (from  the  murex). 
In  metallurgy  we  find  that  copper  was  known  to  the 
Israelites  and  Egyptians  before  the  Exodus  and,  at  an 
early  period,  was  alloyed  with  tin  to  make  bronze  ; 
gold  was  a  medium  of  exchange  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
and  coined  in  that  of  Ezra  ;  Abraham  was  "  rich  in 
silver  "  ;  lead  was  employed  in  the  purification  of 
silver  ;  iron  was  in  use  in  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs, 
and  we  may  note,  by  the  way,  that  Damascus,  not  a  far 
cry  from  Egypt  and  regarded  as  the  most  ancient  city 
in  the  world,  produced  steel  of  celebrity  in  very  remote 
times. 

The  Greeks,  who  drew  largely  on  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,  investigated  the  origin  and  nature  of 
matter,  including  the  properties  of  plant  juices  for 

1  See  Boerhaave's  New  Method  of  Chemistry.    Translated  by  Dr, 
Peter  Shaw.    London,  1753. 
c 


18        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

medicinal  purposes,  but  their  labours  were  in  the 
domain  of  pharmacy  rather  than  that  of  chemistry. 

In  the  light  of  what  we  know  to-day,  however,  not 
much  can  be  claimed  for  the  chemical  knowledge  of 
peoples  with  whom  the  elements  were  limited  to  earth, 
air,  water,  and  fire,  even  though  one  of  the  wisest  of 
them — Aristotle — conceived  the  idea  of  a  fifth  :  the 
quinta  essentia  which  the  alchemists  of  later  times 
regarded  as  necessary  to  effect  transmutation.  Dio- 
cletian (circa  A.D.  290)  ordered  all  Egyptian  alchemical 
records  to  be  burnt  for  fear  that  the  Egyptians  might 
utilise  the  wealth  gained  by  the  study  of  them  to  revolt 
against  the  Romans  ;  many  of  the  supposed  ancient 
books  in  existence  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  nothing 
but  forgeries.  The  beginnings  of  chemistry  are,  there- 
fore, too  obscure  to  enable  usNto  judge  of  their  con- 
nection with  the  arts  and  manufactures  in  early  times. 

The  Alchemical  Period  was  devoted  first  to  the 
search  for  the  alcahest  or  universal  solvent,  then  to  the 
transmutation  of  metals,  and,  lastly,  to  the  discovery 
of  the  elixir  of  life  ;  but  the  search  for  the  elixir  was 
not  vigorously  pursued  until  the  sixteenth  century. 

Sir  Thomas  Browne  writes  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury describing  alchemy  as  "the  cradle  of  chemistry," 
and  it  is  acknowledged  that  to  the  alchemists — 
although  undoubtedly  many  were  arrant  humbugs— 
we  owe  the  discovery  of  many  useful  compounds  and 
some  knowledge  of  bodies  and  their  properties.1  The 
nature  of  ferments  was  a  subject  of  speculation  with 
them  ;  they  made  a  distinction  between  acids  and 
alkalis,  and  other  observations  which  led  to  the 
chemical  treatment  of  disease. 

However,  the  basis  of  the  teaching  of  Paracelsus, 

1  ' '  The  Alchemists  have  made  many  discoveries  and  have 
presented  mankind  with  useful  inventions." — Bacon. 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  19 

sometime  Professor  of  Medical  Science  at  Bale,  lay  in 
the  idea  that  the  human  body  was  composed  of  chemical 
matters,  and  that  illness  resulted  from  changes  caused 
by  chemical  functions,  and  could,  therefore,  be  cured 
by  chemical  means.  Medicine,  he  said,  rested  on  four 
pillars  :  Chemistry,  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  and 
Virtue.  On  the  assumption  that  organic  bodies  con- 
sisted of  salt,  mercury  and  sulphur,  he  proceeded  to 
explain  that  an  increase  of  sulphur  caused  fevers  ;  an 
increase  of  mercury,  paralysis ;  and  an  increase  of  salt, 
diarrhoea ;  a  deficiency  in  sulphur  caused  gout,  and  so 
on.  Further,  he  assumed  a  connection  to  exist  between 
certain  disorders  and  the  stars,  and  at  times  postulated 
the  influence  of  evil  genii.  Nevertheless,  he  introduced 
a  large  number  of  preparations  of  remarkable  efficacy 
and  was  successful  in  the  judicious  use  of  laudanum. 

The  Apothecaries,  who  had  their  origin  in  the  Spicers 
(circa  1200)  and  had  until  this  time  (i5th  century)  been 
mainly  concerned  with  roots,  herbs,  syrups  and  the 
like,  were  stimulated  by  the  teaching  of  Paracelsus  to 
take  up  the  study  of  chemistry.  Controversies  arose 
in  which  the  doctrines  of  Paracelsus  were  opposed, 
and  the  many  contradictions  and  the  charlatanism 
contained  in  his  writings  were  exposed.  Those  who 
attempted  to  emulate  him  not  infrequently  misapplied 
his  preparations  with  serious  consequences.  The 
medical  faculty  of  Paris  condemned  his  innovations 
and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  prohibited  the  prescription 
of  his  antimonial  preparations.  Later,  of  course,  a  more 
rational  use  was  made  of  chemical  preparations  without 
disregarding  the  older  forms  of  medicine  ;  the  fallacies 
of  Paracelsus  became  duly  recognised,  and  a  better  un- 
derstanding arose  as  to  the  position  of  chemistry  in  its 
relation  to  medicine.  Our  point  is  that  the  subject  Para- 
celsus chose  to  call  chemistry  was  nothing  of  the  kind. 


20        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Many  physicians  at  that  time  prepared  their  own 
medicines  and  practised  pharmacy  until  1518,  when 
the  College  of  Physicians  was  founded.  The  followers 
of  Paracelsus — the  iatro-chemists  or  medical  spagirists 
— aimed  at  the  discovery  of  chemical  remedies  of 
mineral  origin.  The  druggists  imported  and  dealt  in 
herbs,  roots,  and  other  vegetable  as  well  as  animal 
substances  ;  and  the  apothecaries  compounded  the 
products  of  both  for  the  physicians.1  Next,  the 
druggists  usurped  the  functions  of  the  apothecaries 
who,  after  they  had  endeavoured  without  success  to 
restrain  the  former,  began  to  prescribe,  and  thus,  in 
tnrn,  usurp  the  functions  of  the  physicians,  leaving  the 
druggists  as  the  recognised  preparers  and  compounders 
of  medicines. 


1  Chaucer    (1340-1400),    who   lived   before    Paracelsus,    clearly 
shows  the  relation  between  the   doctor  of  physic   and   the  com- 
pounder  of  drugs  and  the  name  by  which  the  latter  was  known  : — 
"  Ther  was  also  a  Doctour  of  Phisik, 

Full  redy  hadde  he  his  apotecaries 
To  sende  him  dragges,  and  his  lectuaries." 

Shakespeare  (1564-1616)  also  uses  the  word  apothecary  for  the 
compounders  of  medicines  : — 

"  Give  me  an  ounce  of  civet,  good  apothecary,  to  sweeten  my 
imagination." 

Burton  (1621)  in  his  Anatomy  of  Melancholy  refers  to  Alchemists, 
Apothecaries,  Druggists,  and  Druggers. 

Johnson  in  his  Lives  of  the  Poets  quoted  parallel  passages  from 
Donne  (1573-1631)  : — 

"  And  as  no  chymic  yet  th'  elixir  got, 
But  glorifies  his  pregnant  pot, 
If  by  the  way  to  him  befal 
Some  odoriferous  thing,  or  medicinal.  .  .  . ' 
and  Cowley  (1618-1667) — 

"...  though  the  chymic  his  great  secret  miss, 
(For  neither  it  in  Art  nor  Nature  is) 

Yet  things  well  worth  his  toil  he  gains  ; 
And  does  his  charge  and  labour  pay 
With  good  unsought  experiments  by  the  way  " — 
which  indicate  that  at  that  period  the  elixir  was  the  great  desidera- 
tum :   the  "  chymic  "  was  not  the  apothecary  but  the  alchemist 
searching  for  the  elixir, 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  21 

So  far,  in  the  story,  the  chemical  philosopher — the 
chemist  in  the  wider  sense  in  which  we  use  the  term — 
has  not  come  very  much  into  the  limelight ;  but  he 
had  existed  as  an  experimentalist  and  not  always 
solely  an  alchemist.  Such  was  Roger  Bacon  (thirteenth 
century),  a  pioneer  in  experimental  research,  to  whom 
is  attributed  the  discovery  of  gunpowder. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  apothecary  robbed  the 
physician  of  his  practice  and  the  pharmacist  of  his 
proper  title  ;  and  though,  for  long  after,  attempts 
were  made  to  restore  the  title  apothecary  to  the  phar- 
macist, he  assumed  the  patronymic  of  the  chemical 
philosopher,  at  first  tacking  the  word  chemist  on  to 
druggist,  then  asserting  a  claim  to  it  alone,  finally 
acquiring  a  limited  legal  right  to  the  designation,  which, 
however,  he  was  not  able  to  maintain  against  com- 
panies, as  will  also  be  shown. 

We  propose  to  trace  the  history  of  pharmacy,  show- 
ing the  use  of  the  words  in  which  we  are  now  interested 
by  quotations  which  should  assist  in  elucidating  the 
matter.  We  will  take  for  this  purpose  a  few  abstracts 
from  the  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Progress  of  Pharmacy 
in  Great  Britain,  by  Jacob  Bell  (1841). 

In  1540  the  physicians  were  empowered  to  enter  the 
houses  of  the  Apothecaries  in  London,  "to  search, 
view,  and  see  the  Apothecary-wares,  drugs,  and  stuffs," 
and  to  destroy  such  as  they  found  corrupt  or  unfit  for 
use  ;  and  in  1553,  they  obtained  an  Act  giving  them 
authority  to  "  examine,  .  .  .  correct,  .  .  .  and  punish 
Apothecaries,  Druggists,  .  .  .  and  sellers  of  waters  and 
oils,  and  preparers  of  chemical  medicines/' ..."  accord- 
ing as  the  nature  of  his  or  their  offences  may  seem  to 
require." 


22        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

It  is  uncertain  at  what  period  the  Physicians  gave 
up  the  practice  of  preparing  their  own  medicines,  but 
from  a  work  entitled  Short  Answers  to  Tentamen 
Medicinale  (1704),  the  following  is  quoted  : — 

Tis  very  well  known  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a 
Company  of  Apothecaries  in  the  beginning  of  King  James 
the  First's  reign,  but  what  drugs  and  medicines  were  then 
in  use,  were  sold  in  common  by  the  grocers  ;  and  as  for 
the  preparing  and  compounding  of  them,  that  the  Physi- 
cians principally  took  care  of  themselves.  But  this 
growing  too  servile  and  laborious  a  business,  and  no  other 
means  being  likely  to  be  found  out  for  easing  themselves 
of  it,  but  by  lopping  off  a  considerable  number  of  grocers 
who  had  mostly  been  brought  up  that  way,  and  constituting 
them  a  company  by  themselves,  wholly  to  be  employed  in 
the  business  of  pharmacy,  in  selling  of  drugs  and  preparing 
and  compounding  of  medicines,  according  to  the  Physicians' 
orders  and  directions  ;  in  order  to  this  they  obtained  a 
charter  for  them  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and  fourteen. 

This  number  coincided  with  the  number  of  Physicians 
who  were  then  in  practice  in  London. 

The  Apothecaries  were  separated  from  the  Grocers, 
with  whom  they  had  been  incorporated  since  1606,  and 
obtained  the  charter  above  mentioned  in  1617.  It  was 
enacted  at  the  same  time  that  no  grocer  should  keep 
an  Apothecary's  shop,  and  that  no  Surgeon  should  sell 
medicines.  The  power  of  searching  the  shops  of 
Apothecaries  within  seven  miles  of  London,  and 
examining  their  drugs,  was  also  vested  in  the  chartered 
body. 

The  Society  of  Apothecaries  shortly  after  took  into 
their  serious  consideration  the  frauds  and  artifices 
practised  by  the  Grocers  and  Druggists  from  whom 
they  obtained  their  drugs  ;  and,  in  order  to  remedy 
this  evil,  established,  in  the  year  1623,  a  dispensary  for 
the  purpose  of  making  some  of  the  more  important 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  23 

preparations  for  the  use  of  their  own  members.  This 
institution  was  placed  under  the  inspection  and 
superintendence  of  a  Committee  of  Apothecaries,  and 
was  conducted,  in  the  first  instance,  on  a  small  scale, 
being  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  a  limited  number 
of  preparations. 

The  Medicinal  compounds  formerly  employed  were 
chiefly  empirical  nostrums,  or  heterogeneous  mixtures 
of  substances,  some  components  of  which  neutralised 
others,  or  were  selected  without  any  regard  to  scientific 
principles.  The  science  of  Chemistry  was  so  little 
advanced  that  the  real  composition  of  ordinary 
remedies  was  seldom  understood,  and  in  many  cases 
different  virtues  were  attributed  to  the  same  sub- 
stance, according  to  the  source  whence  it  was  ob- 
tained. 

Culpeper's  translation  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  was 
published  in  1653.  The  Materia  Medica  was  divided 
into  two  classes,  Chymicals  and  Galenicals  :  "  Chymical 
Medicins  "  of  mineral  origin,  and  prepared  by  fire  ; 
"  Galenicals  "  composed  of  herbs,  roots,  and  other 
vegetable  or  animal  substances.  The  trade  in  these 
articles  was  also  distinct,  and  the  Chymists  alluded  to, 
in  works  of  the  date  now  under  consideration,  were 
those  who  prepared  the  mineral  compounds  for  the  use 
of  the  Apothecaries.  These  chymists  would  corre- 
spond, then,  to  our  wholesale  manufacturing  chemists 
of  to-day. 

Here  we  would  remark  that  in  the  time  of  King 
Charles  II,  who  gave  a  Charter  to. the  Royal  Society 
and  considered  himself  its  Founder,  the  study  of 
chemistry  was  the  common  hobby  of  the  educated 
gentleman,  especially  among  the  nobility  and  clergy  ; 
t  and  we  find  in  the  History  of  ike  Royal  Society,  by 


24       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Dr.  Thomas  Spratt,  Lord  Bishop  of  Rochester — 
Section  XVII — that  he  recognised  three  classes 
of  chymists,  of  whom  he  says  that  "  they  may  be 
divided  into  three  Ranks  :  Such,  as  look  after  the 
knowledge  of  Nature  in  general ;  such,  as  seek  out,  and 
prepare  Medicines  ;  and  such,  as  search  after  Riches, 
by  Transmutations,  and  the  great  Elixir.  The  two 
first  have  been  very  successful  in  separating,  com- 
pounding, and  changing  the  Parts  of  Things  ;  and  in 
shewing  the  admirable  Powers  of  Nature,  in  the 
raising  of  new  Constituencies,  Figures,  Colours,  and 
Virtues  of  Bodies  ;  And  from  their  Labours,  the  true 
Philosophy  is  like  to  receive  the  noblest  Improvements. 
But  the  Pretensions  of  the  third  Kind  are,  not  only  to 
indow  us  with  all  the  Benefits  of  this  Life,  but  with 
Immortality  itself  :  And  their  Success  has  been  as 
small,  as  their  Design  was  extravagant."1 

From  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Wisdom  of  the  Nation 
is  Foolishness  (1671),  Jacob  Bell  quotes  a  passage  con- 
firming the  nature  of  the  business  of  the  Chymists  of 
that  time.  "  Such  Chymists  which  sell  preparations 
honestly  made,  complain  that  few  Apothecaries  will  go 
to  the  price  of  them.  ..."  One  of  these,  Ambrose 
Godfrey  Hanckwitz,  had  a  house  and  shop,  with  a 
laboratory  on  the  Bedford  Estate  in  1706,  and  "  was 
a  maker  of  phosphorus  and  other  chymicals,  which 

1  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  was  the  Honble. 
Robert  Boyle  (1626-92),  renowned  as  "  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Cork 
and  the  father  of  modem  chemistry,"  author  of  The  Sceptical  Chemist 
(1669),  who  introduced  the  use  of  chemical  reagents  and  did  much 
to  place  the  science  on  a  saner  basis.  He  refers  to  druggists  and 
drugsters  :  "  Common  nitre  we  bought  at  the  druggists."  "  Com- 
mon oil  of  turpentine  bought  at  the  drugsters." 
Dryden  (1631—1700)  uses  the  word  apothecary  : — 

"  Wand'ring  in  the  dark, 

Physicians,  for  the  tree,  have  found  the  bark  ; 
With  sharpen'd  sight  some  remedies  may  find 
Th'  apothecary-train  is  wholly  blind." 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  25 

were  rare  at  that  period,  and  which  he  sold  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  during  his  travels.  His  laboratory 
was  a  fashionable  resort  in  the  afternoon,  on  certain 
occasions,  when  he  performed  popular  experiments  for 
the  amusement  of  his  friends." 

The  druggists  sold  herbs,  roots,  etc.,  in  the  unpre- 
pared state.  The  Chymists,  as  we  have  shown,  pre- 
pared chiefly  medicines  which  required  the  aid  of  fire — 
minerals,  earths,  or  preparations  of  the  metals.  These, 
then,  and  the  chemical  philosophers  "  such  as  look 
after  the  knowledge  of  Nature  in  general,"  referred  to 
in  the  first  class  of  Bishop  Spratt,  both  derived  their 
origin  from  the  alchymists. 

In  1671  the  Society  of  Apothecaries  added  a  Chemical 
Laboratory  to  their  establishment,  the  object  con- 
templated being  the  preparation  of  chemicals,  since  it 
had  been  found  no  less  difficult  to  obtain  this  class  of 
substances  in  a  state  of  purity  than  the  ordinary  drugs 
which  were  sold  by  the  Merchants  and  Grocers.  This, 
obviously,  was,  at  that  time,  a  laboratory  for  manu- 
facturing rather  than  experimental  work. 

By  the  year  1694 — says  Jacob  Bell — the  Apothe- 
caries had  become  a  very  influential  body,  and  by 
practising  medicine  as  well  as  Pharmacy,  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  Physicians,  who  suffered  materially  from 
this  encroachment,  and  endeavoured  to  reduce  their 
rivals  to  their  original  condition  of  vendors  of  drugs. 
On  one  side  it  was  alleged  that  the  improvement  which 
had  taken  place  among  the  Apothecaries  was  a  great 
benefit  to  the  public,  and  that  the  Physicians,  by 
endeavouring  to  restrain  them,  were  undoing  the 
labour  of  their  predecessors  ;  while  the  other  party 
animadverted  on  the  extortionate  charges  of  the 
Apothecaries,  and  the  loss  which  the  public  sustained 
in  being  deprived,  in  many  cases,  of  the  advantage  of 


26        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

the  best  advice,  for  which  it  was  impossible  to  pay  both 
the  Physician  and  the  Apothecary.  The  Apothecaries 
also  objected  to  the  Physicians  establishing  dispen- 
saries in  opposition  to  them. 

The  dispensaries  prospered,  however,  and  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  the  public  ;  the  Assistants  employed 
and  instructed  by  the  Physicians  at  these  institutions 
became  dispensing  Chemists  on  their  own  account  ; 
and  some  of  the  Apothecaries  who  found  their  craft  in 
danger  followed  their  example.  From  this  source — says 
Jacob  Bell — we  may  date  the  origin  of  the  CHEMISTS 
and  DRUGGISTS.  (The  italics  and  capitals  are  his.) 

Boerhaave  (1668-1738),  who  published  a  great  Text- 
Book  of  Chemistry  in  1732,  clearly  recognised  the 
existence  of  chemists  other  than  those  who  practised 
pharmacy  by  his  statement  :  "  Nothing  has  proved 
more  fatal  both  to  the  chemical  and  medicinal  art, 
than  an  idle  opinion,  that  all  kinds  of  chemical  pro- 
ductions were  proper  to  be  made  use  of  as  medicines." 
He  showed  that  although  the  chemical  art  "  furnishes 
us  with  proper  help  for  securing  and  restoring  of 
health,"  it  also  "  opens  to  the  human  mind  the  powers 
of  nature/'1 

The  distinction  between  the  Apothecary  and  the 
manufacturing  Chemist  is  indicated  by  another  publica- 
tion which  appeared  about  1748,  viz.  An  Enquiry  into 
the  designs  of  the  late  PETITION  presented  to  Parliament 
by  the  Company  of  Apothecaries,  whereby  the  Apothe- 
caries' monstrous  profits  are  exposed,  are  compared  with 
those  of  the  Chemist,  with  respect  to  practice  and  retail,  to 

1  The  Rev.  Dr.  South  in  his  Sermons  published  in  1697  •'  "  They 
have  no  other  doctor,  but  the  Sun  and  the  fresh  air ;  and  that,  such 
an  one,  as  never  sends  them  to  the  apothecary." 

Bishop  Francis  Atterbury  wrote  in  1740  :  "  They  set  the  clergy 
below  their  apothecaries,  the  physician  of  the  soul  below  the  drag- 
sters of  the  body." 

Compare  Bishop  Spratt,  ante,  p.  24. 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  27 

which  is  annexed  a  Scheme  to  prevent  the  empirical 
Apothecary  from  practising  ;  and  the  Chemist  from  pre- 
paring and  vending  sophisticated  medicines,  from  which 
it  is  shown  that  the  chemists  made  the  galenicals  for 
the  Apothecaries,  who  sought  power  to  search  the 
shops  of  the  former.  "  This  privilege/'  says  Jacob 
Bell,  "  was  not  granted,  and  the  author  of  the- pamphlet 
endeavours  to  prove  that  the  Chemist  who  prepared 
medicines  is  a  more  competent  judge  of  their  quality 
than  the  Apothecary  who  procures  them  ready  made." 
Prof.  John  Attfield — discussing  the  title  Chemist  in 
the  Chemical  News  (vol.  xxxvii,  1878) — says:  "The 
Apothecaries'  Charter  of  1748  was  intended  to  re- 
strain chemists  and  druggists  from  practising  phar- 
macy, that  is,  compounding  prescriptions.  It  failed. 
The  apothecary  (originally  only  '  a  preparer  of  drugs 
for  medicinal  uses  ')  was  then  gradually  becoming  what 
to-day  he  is,  namely,  a  medical  practitioner,  while  the 
chemist  and  druggist  was  as  gradually  succeeding  him 
as  a  preparer  and  compounder  of  medicines." 

Dr.  George  Berkenhout,  in  the  Preface  to  his  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Philosophical  Chemistry,  published  in 
London,  1758,  protests  against  the  confusion  then 
arising  from  the  use  of  the  title  "  Chymist  "  by  com- 
pounders  of  medicine  :  "  Persons,  who  know  nothing 
more  of  Chemistry  than  the  name,  naturally  suppose 
it  to  be  a  trade  exercised  by  the  shopkeepers,  called 
Druggists  and  Chemists  who  are  thought  to  be  chiefly 
employed  in  preparing  medicines  for  the  use  of  apothe- 
caries ;  Chemistry,  therefore,  they  imagine,  belongs 
exclusively  to  physic  ;  but  if,  excited  by  curiosity, 
they  become  better  acquainted  with  this  bewitching 
science,  they  will  soon  discover  its  intimate  connection 
with  every  other  branch  of  human  knowledge ;  and 


28       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

that  the  arts  and  manufactures  so  peculiarly  conducive 
to  the  prosperity  of  nations,  constantly  look  up  to 
Chemistry  in  their  progress  towards  perfection.  In 
this  point  of  view,  it  claims  the  support  of  ministerial 
power  in  all  countries." 

Dr.  Johnson  (i  709-84),*  who  was  fond  of  chemical 
experiments,  denned  chymistry  as  "  the  art  of  separ- 
ating natural  bodies  by  fire  ;  preparing  chemicals/' 
and  a  chymist  as  "  a  professor  of  chymistry  "  ;  phar- 
macy as  "  the  trade  of  an  apothecary  "  and  druggist 
as  "  a  person  who  sells  physical  drugs/' 

The  chemists  and  druggists  succeeded  to  the  dis- 
pensing practice  of  the  Apothecaries,  who  in  the  year 
1793  "  instituted  an  inquiry  into  defects  and  privations 
which  existed  among  them  .  .  .",  which  arose  from 
certain  causes  of  which  the  first  was  "  the  encroach- 
ment which  Chemists  and  Druggists  have  of  late  years 
made  on  the  profession  of  the  Apothecary,  by  vending 
pharmaceutic  preparations,  and  compounding  the 
prescriptions  of  Physicians."  The  Apothecaries  deter- 
mined to  form  a  Society  with  the  title  of  "  The  General 
Pharmaceutical  Association  of  Great  Britain "  to 
attack  the  "  Chemists  and  Druggists  "  who  had  by 
that  time  so  increased  in  number  that  there  was 
"  scarcely  to  be  found  a  village  or  hamlet  without  a 
village  or  a  hamlet  Druggist,"  and,  on  this,  Jacob  Bell 
remarks  that  "  at  this  period,  the  Chemists  and 
Druggists  were  entering  upon  that  position  which  they 
now  occupy,  as  dispensers  of  medicine."  The  result 
of  these  exertions  of  the  Apothecaries  was  not  so 
successful  as  was  anticipated. 

1  July  1 8th,  1763  :  "I  observed  an  apparatus  for  chemical 
experiments,  of  which  Johnson  was  all  his  life  very  fond."  Again, 
under  the  date  of  1783,  Boswell  gives  some  particulars  supplied  by 
a  mutual  friend  :  "  Chemistry  was  always  an  interesting  pursuit 
with  Dr.  Johnson." 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  29 

In  1802,  for  a  short  time,  the  two  classes  were 
brought  together  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  their 
mutual  interests  against  the  injurious  operation  of  the 
Medicine  Act,  passed  on  the  3rd  of  June  of  that  year  ; 
but  the  Apothecaries  soon  lost  ground  in  the  "  trading  " 
department  of  their  profession  and,  according  to  Dr. 
Burrows  (circa  1816),  complained  that  the  .profits  of 
their  business  had  been  greatly  deteriorated  by  dis- 
pensing Chemists  and  Druggists.  The  practice  had 
existed  so  long,  however,  that  it  had  acquired  from 
Custom  the  force  of  law.  "  It  had  indeed  become  dim- 
cult  to  define  who  was,  or  who  was  not,  an  Apothecary." 

The  "  Chemists  and  Druggists "  then  began  to 
organise  themselves  seriously  ;  but,  shortly  before  this 
had  been  definitely  accomplished,  the  Chemical 
Society  was  established  at  a  meeting  held  in  the  rooms 
of  the  Society  of  Arts  on  23rd  February,  1841,  "  For 
the  advancement  of  Chemistry,  and  those  branches  of 
science  immediately  connected  with  it ;  for  the  com- 
munication and  discussion  of  discoveries  and  observa- 
tions relating  to  such  subjects  ;  the  formation  of  a 
library  of  scientific  works,  and  a  museum  of  chemical 
preparations  and  standard  instruments."  The  objects 
of  the  Chemical  Society  were  purely  scientific ;  it  in- 
cluded among  its  members  men  in  various  professions 
who  were  devoted  to  the  study  of  Chemistry,  and 
embraced  within  its  sphere  of  interest  every  depart- 
ment of  that  science  (see  p.  100). 

Less  than  two  months  later  saw  the  foundation  of 
the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  "  at 
a  public  meeting  of  the  Trade,  held  at  the  Crown  and 
Anchor  Tavern,  in  the  Strand,  on  Thursday,  April  i5th 
instant,"  when  it  was  resolved  "  that  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  the  permanent  interests,  and  increasing 
the  respectability  of  Chemists  and  Druggists,  an 


30        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Association  be  now  formed  under  the  title  of 
the  '  PHARMACEUTICAL  SOCIETY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN/  " 
The  primary  object  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society, 
then,  was  to  provide  "  chemists  and  druggists  "  with  an 
organisation  for  self-defence  in  support  of  their  rights, 
and  it  resulted  eventually  in  the  creation  of  a  national 
institution  for  the  advancement  of  pharmacy. 

Jacob  Bell  shows  definitely  his  view  of  the  matter, 
when  he  refers  to  "  Our  predecessors,  the  original 
Apothecaries,  who  were  merely  compounders  of 
medicine  .  .  ."  and  when  he  says  "  the  Members  of 
the  Pharmaceutical  Society  are  following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  the  original  Apothecaries."1 

A  paper  by  Mr.  Morson  in  the  first  volume  of  The 
Pharmaceutical  Journal,  moreover,  tells  us  that  the 
"  Spicers  "  (circa  1200)  "  were  the  first  apothecaries  or 
chemists  and  druggists  in  Europe,"  and  that  when  the 
Apothecaries  regularly  studied  Physic,  "  the  retail 
Chemist  became  the  only  true  Apothecary.  .  .  ."2  Bell 
in  another  place  says  :  "  The  Apothecaries'  Company, 
(which)  was  originally  a  company  of  Pharmaceutical 
Chemists.  ..."  Again  :  "  The  ultimate  object  of  the 
Society  is  to  qualify  every  Druggist  in  the  Kingdom." 

Prof.  Theophilus  Redwood,  at  the  conclusion  of  an 
introductory  lecture  on  pharmaceutical  chemistry,  very 

1  Lord  Byron  (1788-1824)  wrote :  "  For  Inez  called  some 
druggists  and  physicians." 

Macaulay  (1800-59),  in  his  History  of  England  (chap,  xv),  says  : 
"...  the  common  drugs  with  which  every  apothecary  in  the  smallest 
market  town  was  provided.  ..." 

a  A  footnote  on  p.  179  of  Vol.  I  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Journal  is 
also  interesting : — 

"  The  Dispensing  Chemists  in  America  are  called  Apothecaries. 
The  word  being  derived  from  airo  and  nBrifju,  to  put  together  or 
compound  medicine,  this  designation  is  more  correct  than  our  term 
Chemist  and  Druggist." 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  31 

naturally  mentions  the  existence  of  the  analyst.  He 
refers  also  to  synthesis,  and  indicates  the  importance 
of  chemistry  to  pharmacy  :  "  We  must  not  ...  be 
unobservant  of,  or  unacquainted  with,  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  analyst,  and  especially  those  investigations 
in  organic  chemistry  which  are  calculated  so  largely  to 
enrich,  as  they  have  already  enriched,  the  storehouse 
of  our  remedial  agents.  It  is  by  the  application  of 
correct  analysis,  and  of  exact  synthesis,  that  we  can 
alone  hope  to  obtain  for  Pharmacy  that  position  beside 
her  sister  science  Chemistry,  which,  from  the  nature 
of  the  subjects  comprehended,  and  the  importance  of 
the  objects  contemplated,  she  is  so  much  entitled  to 
hold. 

"  Through  the  investigations  of  the  analytical 
Chemist,  have  been  discovered  and  procured  the 
active  proximate  principles  of  a  great  part  of  the 
vegetables  employed  in  medicine  ;  and  these  con- 
stitute some  of  the  most  valuable  remedies  in  the 
hands  of  the  Physician.  By  the  same  means  we  are 
brought  acquainted  with  the  proximate  constituents 
of  the  animal  organs  and  secretions,  'a  branch  of  know- 
ledge which,  judging  from  the  progress  it  is  now 
making,  is  probably  destined  to  contribute,  more  than 
any  other,  to  the  successful  alleviation  of  the  sufferings 
contingent  upon  disease.  By  means  of  analysis  we 
have  determined  the  nature  of  many  of  the  produc- 
tions of  the  pharmaceutical  art,  which  before  were  not 
understood  ;  and  through  the  continued  application 
of  this  species  of  investigation,  in  connection  with  the 
other  branches  of  our  science,  we  may  hope  eventually 
to  arrive  at  that  perfection  in  the  preparation  of 
medicines,  which  would  enable  us  to  determine  the 
constitution  and  the  action  of  every  remedy,  upon 
unerring  principles," 


32        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

We  will  now  proceed  with  the  consideration  of  the 
development  of  the  craft  of  pharmacy  to  the  present 
time. 

The  use  of  vegetable  drugs  for  purposes,  good  and 
bad,  obviously  dates  from  the  most  remote  and 
primitive  ages,  and  trading  in  such  drugs  may  be 
traced  as -far  back  as  the  time  of  Solomon.  Modern 
times  have  seen  their  systematic  cultivation,  while 
their  commercial  importance  has  increased  by  leaps 
and  bounds. 

Concurrently  with  the  advance  in  medicine  towards 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  considerable  pro- 
gress was  made  in  pharmaceutical  chemistry,  and, 
from  that  time,  in  the  place  of  an  accumulation  of 
recipes,  many  of  doubtful  use  and  efficacy,  a  new 
system  of  pharmacy  was  steadily  introduced,  which, 
by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  of  no 
mean  order. 

The  first  pharmacopoeia  was  produced  by  the  London 
College  of  Physicians  in  1721,  and  was  followed  by 
others  (1746,  1788,  1809, 1836)  forming  the  basis  of  the 
practice  of  pharmacy,  which,  as  we  have  shown,  had 
no  distinct  organisation — apart  from  the  original 
Society  of  Apothecaries — until  the  foundation  of  the 
Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain  in  1841. 

The  first  Pharmacy  Act,  1852,  was  passed  to  prevent 
ignorant  and  incompetent  persons  from  pretending  to 
be  pharmaceutical  chemists,  but  it  did  not  restrict  the 
practice  of  pharmacy  or  the  sale  of  poisons.  Later 
editions  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  published  in  1864  and 
1867,  tended  to  improve  the  supply  of  drugs  both  as 
to  purity  and  uniformity,  and  in  1868  a  further  Phar- 
macy Act  was  passed,  imposing  a  penalty  on  any 
person  compounding  any  medicine  of  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia  except  according  to  its  formularies. 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  33 

The  British  Pharmacopoeia  thus  supplied  the 
necessary  standards  for  preparation ;  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Society  of  Great  Britain,  having  determined 
the  qualifications  for  its  membership,  became  duly 
constituted  as  the  organisation  for  examination  and 
registration  of  "  chemists  and  druggists  "  ;  and  the 
sale  of  poisons  retail  was  restricted  to  competent 
persons  duly  examined  and  registered  by  the  Society. 
Later,  under  the  Poisons  and  Pharmacy  Act,  1908,  the 
sale  of  poisons  for  medicinal  purposes  still  remained 
safeguarded,  but  the  law  was  altered  to  allow,  under 
certain  conditions,  the  sale  of  poisonous  substances 
used  exclusively  in  agriculture  or  horticulture  for  the 
destruction  of  insects,  fungi,  bacteria,  or  as  sheep  dips 
or  weed  killers,  by  traders  licensed  by  local  authorities. 
The  Acts  of  1852  and  1868  had  reserved  certain 
titles  to  registered  individuals ;  but  the  law  had  been 
interpreted  so  that  this  restriction  was  held  not  to 
apply  to  companies.  The  Act  of  1908,  however,  made 
it  illegal  for  a  pharmaceutical  company  to  use  the 
title  "  chemist  and  druggist  "  unless  the  sale  of  poisons 
by  them  was  under  the  actual  superintendence  of  a 
qualified  person,  and  unless  each  branch  or  shop  of  the 
company  was  under  the  charge  of  a  qualified  person. 

A  pharmacist,  therefore,  is  a  person  who  is  legally 
qualified  to  conduct  the  business  of  "  chemist  and 
druggist,"  including  the  sale  of  poisons  and  the  com- 
pounding of  the  prescriptions  of  duly  qualified  medical 
practitioners,  and  the  title  "  pharmacist  "  is  reserved 
solely  for  any  person  duly  qualified  under  the  Phar- 
macy Acts,  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  being  further 
empowered  to  prescribe  a  course  of  training  for  in- 
tending candidates,  which  would  improve  the  status 
of  pharmacists  and  promote  their  usefulness  to  the 
public. 


34        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

A  candidate  for  registration,  under  the  Pharmacy 
Act,  1868,  as  a  "  chemist  and  druggist  "  is  required 
(i.)  to  pass  a  Preliminary  Examination,  including 
English,  Mathematics,  and  two  optional  subjects;1 
(ii.)  to  be  registered  as  an  Apprentice  or  Student  and 
to  be  practically  engaged  for  three  years  in  the  trans- 
lation and  dispensing  of  prescriptions  ;  and  (iii.)  to 
pass  the  Minor  Examination,  comprising  Botany, 
Chemistry  and  Physics,  Chemistry  (Practical),  Materia 
Medica,  Pharmacy,  Practical  Pharmacy  and  Dispens- 
ing, Latin  and  Prescription  Reading.  In  preparation 
for  this  examination,  in  addition  to  the  apprentice- 
ship, candidates  are  recommended  to  obtain  systematic 
instruction  occupying  a  period  of  not  less  than  six 
months,  including  at  least  sixty  Lectures  in  chemistry, 
eighteen  hours'  work  in  each  week  in  Practical  Chem- 
istry, forty-five  lectures  and  demonstrations  in  Botany 
and  twenty-five  lectures  and  demonstrations  in 
Materia  Medica.  Candidates  for  registration  as  Phar- 
maceutical Chemists  under  the  Pharmacy  Act,  1852, 
are  required  to  pass  the  Major  Examination,  comprising 
Botany,  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Chemistry  (Practical), 
and  Materia  Medica. 

Pharmaceutical  chemists  and  "  chemists  and  drug- 
gists "  are  trained,  examined,  and  registered  for  the 
protection  of  the  public.  They  are  held  answerable  for 
the  purity  of  the  substances  in  which  they  deal,  though 
— except  in  comparatively  rare  instances — few  of  them 
are  able  to  devote  much  of  their  time  to  laboratory 
work  in  this  or  other  connections. 

In  these  circumstances,  greater  responsibility  has 
devolved  on  the  wholesale  manufacturing  chemists. 

1  Junior  and  Senior  Local,  School  Leaving,  and  Matriculation 
Examinations  of  the  Universities  are  accepted  by  the  Pharmaceutical 
Society  for  this  purpose. 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  35 

The  physician  would  be  unable  to  prescribe,  with  any 
hope  of  curing  or  relieving  his  patient,  unless  he  could 
feel  assured  that  the  constituents  of  his  medicines  were 
properly  compounded  by  the  pharmacist  who,  in  turn, 
must  be  assured  of  the  efficient  production  of  such 
constituents  in  the  first  place  by  the  chemists  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  pharmaceutical  products. 

Ampng  the  latter  are  not  a  few  trained  originally  as 
pharmaceutical  chemists  who  occupy  positions  of  great 
responsibility,  requiring  special  chemical  as  well  as 
pharmaceutical  knowledge  and  frequently  considerable 
acquaintance  with  physiology  and  pathology.  Such 
chemists  have  made  discoveries  of  far-reaching  im- 
portance in  the  chemistry  of  botanical  products  useful 
in  medicine,  while  by  the  study  of  the  chemical  pro- 
cesses of  the  animal  organism,  as  well  as  by  their  work 
in  connection  with  synthetic  drugs,  narcotics,  anaesthe- 
tics, antiseptics,  and  in  the  production  of  various  sera, 
they  have  clearly  illustrated  the  advantages  of  science 
in  their  industry,  which  demands  the  service  of  chemists 
of  the  highest  standard  of  competence. 

The  pharmacists  have  learned  to  rely  on  the  manu- 
facturing chemists,  and  while  the  commercial  side  of 
their  business  has  been  developed,  the  wholesale  pro- 
duction of  proprietary  medicines  and  preparations — 
in  convenient  form — has  reduced  the  work  of  the  dis- 
pensary. The  medical  profession  has  taken  advantage 
of  this  production,  so  that  the  prescription  of  ready 
prepared  remedies  represents  a  considerable  proportion 
of  modern  practice.  At  the  same  time,  the  sale  of 
"  patent  "  medicines,  which  has  increased  enormously, 
has  also  contributed  to  the  reduction  of  dispensing. 
It  would  seem  that,  in  order  to  recoup  themselves  for 
the  loss  of  much  of  the  more  skilful  and  remunerative 


36        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

part  of  their  calling,  the  pharmacists  have  been  forced 
to  trench  on  other  businesses,  and  thus,  in  spite  of  the 
increasing  stringency  of  the  qualifying  examinations, 
the  craft  is  in  danger  of  becoming  more  commercial 
and  less  scientific  ;  and,  in  any  case,  more  that  of  the 
druggist  and  less  that  of  the  chemist. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  evidence  we  have  culled  from 
the  history  of  British  pharmacy,  it  has  been  held  that 
the  pharmacist  has  acquired  a  prior  right  to  the  title 
chemist  on  the  other  grounds,  including  the  following  : 

First,  because  some  of  the  earliest  applications  of 
chemistry  were  to  be  found  in  pharmacy  and  medicine  ; 
though  these  relate  only  to  a  limited  field  in  the  vast 
domain  of  chemical  science. 

Second,  because  the  Pharmacy  Acts  were  passed 
before  the  scientific  and  industrial  chemists  of  the 
present  day  came  into  existence ;  though  British 
chemistry  can  claim  such  men  as  Boyle,  Black,  Priestley, 
Cavendish,  Dalton,  Davy  and  Wollaston  as  workers  in 
"  pure  "  chemistry,  and  Bessemer,  Pattinson,  Welldon, 
Perkin,  Abel,  James  Young  and  others,  in  applied 
chemistry,  in  most  cases  before  the  Act  of  1852  and  in 
all  before  that  of  1868. 

Third,  because  the  chemist  and  druggist  sells  not 
only  medicines  and  drugs,  but  other  substances  used 
for  manufacturing  and  domestic  purposes — insecti- 
cides, vermin  killers  and  disinfectants  ;  though  the 
seller  is  not  necessarily  a  producer.  He  does  not 
claim  to  be  a  brushmaker  because  he  sells  brushes. 
We  have  shown,  moreover,  that  local  authorities  may 
license  other  traders,  not  necessarily  chemists  at  all, 
to  sell  some  of  the  substances  referred  to. 

Fourth,  because  he  is  examined  and  certified  in 
chemistry,  a  much  more  legitimate  claim  ;  though 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  37 

it  is  obvious  that  (he  scope  and  character  of  his  ex- 
amination, designed  to  meet  the  demands  of  his 
business,  are  elementary,  unless  he  proceeds  to  the 
major  examination,  which  indeed  is  of  a  high  standard 
for  its  purpose. 

Fifth,  because  of  the  rights  conferred  by  the  Phar- 
macy Acts  and  by  usage ;  though  Section  HI  clearly 
shows  that  the  Acts  are  not  intended  to  interfere  with 
the  chemist  to  whom  we  apply  the  title.1  The  rights 
conferred  on  the  pharmacist  did  not  remove  the  right 
to  the  title  previously  enjoyed  by  chemists  who  did 
not  practise  pharmacy,  but  it  was  necessary  to  define 
those  to  whom  the  Acts  of  1868  applied.  Public  usage 
so  far  as  it  has  been  established  has  not  at  any  time 
denied  the  title  to  any  man  distinguished  in  chemical 
science ;  and  pharmacists  themselves  could  not  refer 
to  such  men  except  as  chemists. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  change  which  we  desire  to 
see  brought  about  would  involve  considerable  expense  ; 
still,  we  are  hopeful  that  if  pharmacists  admit  the 
justice  of  our  views,  and  cease  to  style  themselves 
chemists,  they  will  not  shrink  from  the  loss  which  may 
be  involved  by  changing  their  facias,  labels,  bill  and 
letter  headings,  etc.,  although  this  may  be  no  small 
consideration  when  it  affects  some  9000  establishments. 

The  Pharmaceutical  Society  cannot  restrict  the  use  of 
the  title  chemist  unless  the  user  unlawfully  keeps  open 

1  Section  III.  Chemists  and  Druggists  within  the  meaning  of 
this  Act  shall  consist  of  all  Persons  who  at  any  Time  before  the 
passing  of  this  Act  have  carried  on  in  Great  Britain  the  Business  of 
a  Chemist  and  Druggist,  in  the  keeping  of  open  Shop  for  the 
compounding  of  the  Prescriptions  of  duly  qualified  Medical  Prac- 
titioners, also  of  all  Assistants  and  Associates  who  before  the  passing 
of  this  Act  shall  have  been  duly  registered  under  or  according  to  the 
Provisions  of  the  Pharmacy  Act,  and  also  of  all  such  Persons  as  may 
be  duly  registered  under  this  Act. 


38        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

shop  for  the  sale  and  dispensing  of  poisons.  There  is,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  desire  on  the  part  of  analytical,  con- 
sulting, and  technological  chemists  to  interfere  with 
the  business  of  the  pharmacist  or  druggist.  The 
general  community,  however,  being  in  closer  touch 
with  the  "  pharmaceutical  chemist  "  and  "  chemist 
and  druggist  "  has  been  largely  ignorant  of  the  ex- 
istence of  consulting,  analytical,  and  technological 
chemists.  The  latter,  therefore,  would  welcome  the 
more  general  adoption  by  the  former  of  the  title 
"  pharmacist,"  which  enables  a  definite  distinction  to 
be  made  betwreen  those  who  practise  pharmacy  and 
those  who  practise  chemistry. 

We  have  shown  how  the  confusion  arose  in  this 
country,  and  will  now  show  that  it  does  not  so  exist  in 
any  other,  by  giving  the  following  schedule  of  equiva- 
lents : — 

French  Medecin — pharmacien 

Pharmacien  Chimiste 

Apothicaire  (term  of  contempt) 

Italian  Farmacista  Chimieo 

Spanish          Apozicari  Quimico 

Farmaceutico  Chimista 

Boticario 

Portuguese    Boticario  Chimist 

Pharmaceutico 

German1        Apotheker  Chemiker 

Arzeneibereiter 

Dutch  Apotheker  Chimist 

Artsenigmenger  Scheikundige 

Danish        j  Apotheker  Kemiker  or 

Norwegian  /  Chemiker 

1  In  an  autobiographical  sketch  of  Justus  voii  Liebig,  translated 
by  Prof.  Campbell  Brown,  occurs  this  interesting  passage  :  "...  my 
father  took  me  to  an  apothecary  at  Heppenheim,  in  the  Hessian 
Bergstrasse  ;  but  at  the  end  of  ten  months  he  was  so  tired  of  me 
that  he  sent  me  home  again  to  my  father.  I  wished  to  be  a  chemist, 
but  not  a  druggist." 


PHARMACISTS  AND  CHEMISTS  39 

Swedish         Apotekare  Kemist 

Russian         Aptickari  Chimiki 

Pharmatsicobi 
Greek  Pharmachopoios  Chemichos 

Pharmakeutes 

Pharmakeus 

Apotheke 

Professors  of  Chemistry  in  our  Universities  and 
Colleges  teach  chemistry,  not  pharmacy.  The  head  of 
the  Government  Laboratories  is  styled  the  "  Govern- 
ment Chemist,"  of  the  Admiralty  Laboratories,  the 
"  Admiralty  Chemist,"  whilst  many  other  officials,  to 
whom  we  shall  refer  in  a  later  chapter,  are  engaged  on 
chemical  work  and  are  styled  "  chemists  "  ;  certainly 
not  "  pharmacists."  The  representative  body  of 
pharmacists  is  rightly  styled  The  Pharmaceutical 
Society,  and  that  of  chemists  The  Institute  of  Chemistry. 

Modern  dictionaries  define  Chemist  primarily  as  one 
skilled  or  versed  in  the  science  of  chemistry,  and 
chemistry  as  the  science  of  the  elements  and  the  laws 
which  regulate  their  combination  and  behaviour  under 
various  conditions.  The  profession  with  which  we  are 
concerned  herein  is  that  of  chemistry  according  to  that 
definition  and  not  pharmacy  ;  and  when  we  consider 
the  remarkable  advances  made  in  chemical  science 
and  the  vast  ground  it  covers,  we  feel  justified  in 
maintaining  that,  if  any  chemist  deserves  to  use  the 
title  without  any  qualifying  adjective,  he  should  be 
a  thoroughly  trained  all-round  chemist,  before  all 
things  a  chemist,  and  should  so  style  himself. 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING 

BEFORE  the  general  utilisation  of  steam  power, 
the  expression  "  technical  education  "  had  no 
reference  to  special  training  in  science :  it  was  used  gener- 
ally to  denote  the  training  in  manual  skill  and  in  the 
use  of  tools  in  the  practical  arts,  formerly  acquired  by 
artisans  and  operatives  under  apprenticeship.  The 
superior  skill  of  artisans  and  mechanics  was  then  the 
predominant  feature  essential  to  industrial  success 
whilst,  compared  with  modern  standards,  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  was  exceedingly  elementary.  Science  was 
regarded  chiefly  as  a  pursuit  for  men  of  leisure,  and, 
as  such,  was  devoted  rather  to  the  methodical  arrange- 
ment of  established  facts  than  to  the  determination 
of  methods  of  discovery.  Chemistry  was  studied 
to  a  very  limited  extent  by  medical  students  for  the 
purposes  of  their  vocations  and  comparatively  rarely 
by  others.  Apart  from  the  professors  in  the  Uni- 
versities, there  were  few  practitioners.  Technical 
schools  and  Colleges,  as  we  now  use  these  terms, 
scarcely  existed,  and  laboratories  for  practical  instruc- 
tion were  very  few  in  number.  Students  were  seldom 
afforded  opportunities  for  individual  practical  work, 
which  was  usually  taught  by  demonstration. 

The  progress  made  in  the  use  of  steam  power — and, 
later,  electrical  power — in  machinery,  particularly  for 
locomotion,  effected  great  changes  in  economic  relations, 
and  the  increasing  applications  of  scientific  knowledge 

40 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  41 

to  industrial  operations  in  other  countries,  brought  the 
realisation  that  this  country  was  in  danger  of  being 
overtaken  in  her  hitherto  unchallenged  commercial 
supremacy.  Industrial  conditions  became  changed  in 
a  variety  of  ways,  and  one  remarkable  result  of  inter- 
national competition  was  the  creation  of  a  demand  for 
a  new  order  of  intelligence  in  all  branches  of  industry. 

To  meet  this  demand,  "  technical  education/'  with 
a  new  meaning,  was  introduced  ;  so  that  the  last 
seventy-five  years  have  witnessed  the  establishment 
throughout  the  country  of  numerous  institutions,  the 
main  object  of  the  majority  being  to  provide  practical 
and  utilitarian  in  addition  to  purely  academical  train- 
ing. The  Universities  and  University  Colleges,  also, 
while  for  the  most  part  preserving  their  function  of 
maintaining  and  advancing  pure  science,  have  in 
recent  times  established  faculties  of  applied  science.1 

Bacon  complained  that,  in  his  time,  the  Universities 
were  opposed  to  the  progress  of  knowledge,  and  con- 
tended that  in  the  Arts  and  Sciences,  as  in  mines,  all 
around  should  echo  with  the  sound  of  new  works  and 
further  progress.  We  may  claim,  therefore,  that  the 
Universities  have  since  made  considerable  advance  in 
that  direction,  and  whereas  in  Bacon's  time  objects 
unattained  were  held  to  be  impossible,  the  fact  is  now 
established  clearly  that  the  more  we  achieve  the 
greater  become  the  possibilities  of  further  achieve- 
ment— each  succeeding  generation  building  on  the 
work  of  its  predecessor. 

Some  of  the  colleges  in  our  great  cities  have  made 
such  progress  that  they  have  been  reconstituted  as 
universities,  in  which  most  of  the  students  are  found 

1  The  History  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  (1877-1914)  contains 
a  concise  account  of  the  foundation  and  progress  of  many  of  the 
principal  chairs  of  chemistry  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


42       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

in  the  science  faculties.  Thus,  University  education 
has  been  made  readily  available  to  those  who  lean 
towards  scientific  pursuits,  as  well  as  to  those  whose 
mental  faculties  are  turned  to  literature  and  the  arts. 
Situated  in  great  manufacturing  centres,  they  supply 
a  real  want ;  local  industries  have  thereby  been 
stimulated  and  have  materially  benefited.  En- 
deavours have  been  made  to  meet  the  special  require- 
ments of  particular  centres,  and  the  interest  of  manu- 
facturers has  been  secured  by  the  election  of  men 
identified  with  industry  as  members  of  the  governing 
bodies.  The  older  universities  and  colleges  also  have 
rapidly  developed  their  scientific  departments  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  times. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  there  are  seventeen 
Universities  and  over  250  Technical  Colleges  and 
other  institutions  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  pro- 
viding courses  of  training  in  chemistry  and  allied  sub- 
jects, and  that  in  all  the  Universities  and  in  many  of 
the  Colleges  courses  are  provided  for  the  preparation 
of  students  for  degrees  in  science.  Provision  has 
been  made,  therefore,  for  the  training  of  professional 
chemists  and  a  constant  supply  of  competent  men 
is  thereby  rendered  available  for  the  service  of  the 
community. 

The  progress  of  chemical  science  depends  upon  the 
work  of  analysts,  consultants,  and  technologists,  as 
well  as  on  that  of  the  teachers. *  There  is  no  antagonism 
between  pure  and  applied  chemistry,  but  on  the  con- 
trary each  is  dependent  on  the  other.  Credit  for 
advances  in  theory  and  practice  is  due  to  both  teachers 
and  practitioners.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the 

1  For  simplicity,  we  refer  to  those  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
teaching  as  teachers,  although  in  some  cases  they  may  also  under- 
take consulting  practice. 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  43 

closest  relations  should  be  fostered  between  all  chemists 
for  the  furtherance  of  their  interests,  educational  and 
professional. 

The  chemist  with  experience  of  the  problems  occur- 
ring in  practice  can  clearly  take  a  part  in  education  by 
indicating  the  trend  of  scientific  applications  in  in- 
dustry and  in  everyday  life,  and  by  making  his  technical 
knowledge  available  to  those  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
teaching.  A  proper  estimate  of  the  training  necessary 
for  the  profession  can  best  be  secured,  therefore,  by  a 
body  representative  of  those  having  experience  in  its 
various  branches.  This  is  one  of  the  main  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  an  organisation  such  as  the  In- 
stitute of  Chemistry,  whose  work  in  relation  to  the 
professional  training  of  chemists  will  now  be  discussed. 

The  Regulations  prescribed  by  the  Institute,  framed 
and  developed  by  successive  Councils,  represent  an 
authoritative  consensus  of  opinion  in  determining  a 
system  of  technical  training  which  should  make  a 
sound  foundation  on  which  the  student  can  build  his 
subsequent  experience.  The  Institute  has  in  this  way 
co-operated  with  the  Universities  and  Colleges  in  pro- 
moting the  steady  improvement  of  the  standard  of 
education  in  chemical  science. 

These  Regulations  provide  for  the  registration  of 
students  preparing  for  the  Examination  for  the  Associ- 
ateship  (A.I.C.).  Such  registration  is  not  obligatory,  but 
it  is  advantageous  in  that  it  brings  the  Students  at  an 
early  stage  into  touch  with  the  work  of  the  Institute. 
Through  the  published  Proceedings,  they  learn  some- 
thing of  matters  of  professional  interest  and  become 
acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  qualifying  examina- 
tions ;  while  from  the  Lectures  given  before  the 
Institute,  published  gratis  to  all  members  and  students, 


44        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

they  obtain  an  insight  into  the  actual  work  of  various 
branches  of  practice. 

It  is  advantageous,  moreover,  for  the  Students  to 
feel  assured  that,  although  the  Regulations  are  liable 
to  be  changed  from  time  to  time,  they  can  proceed 
under  those  in  operation  at  the  time  of  their  registra- 
tion and  make  their  arrangements  accordingly. 

From  the  foundation  of  the  Institute  in  1877,  a 
minimum  of  three  years'  systematic  training  at  a 
recognised  institution  was  prescribed  as  the  main 
requirement  of  candidates  for  the  Associateship 
(A. I.C.),  though  two  years'  experience  under  a  Fellow 
in  an  approved  laboratory  could  be  reckoned  in  lieu 
of  one  year  at  an  institution.  As,  in.  the  course  of 
time,  the  majority  of  the  recognised  institutions  be- 
came universities,  candidates  in  most  cases  completed 
their  college  training,  and  took  a  Degree  in  science 
before  entering  for  the  Associateship  examination  of 
the  Institute.  Compared  with  former  times,  however, 
the  ground  to  be  covered  has  attained  such  dimensions 
and  is  constantly  being  so  much  extended  that,  in 
spite  of  all  improvements  in  the  methods  of  teaching 
and  in  the  equipment  of  laboratories,  four  years  must 
now  be  regarded  as  the  minimum  period  for  a  satis- 
factory training.  The  Regulations  adopted  in  1917 
offered  several  alternative  schemes  to  candidates  for 
the  Examination  for  the  Associateship  ;  but  further 
modifications,  to  which  we  will  refer  shortly,  have  now 
been  adopted  (pp.  50-51).  For  the  present,  we  re- 
produce the  alternative  schemes  referred  to,  as  they 
provide  the  prospective  chemist  with  a  definite  idea 
of  the  extent  of  the  requirements  :— 

(a)  A  four  years  systematic  day  training  in  the  prescribed 
subjects — including  Chemistry,  Physics,  Mathematics 
and  one  optional  subject — at  a  University  or  College 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  45 

recognised  by  the  Council,  passing  the  class  examina- 
tions in  the  said  subjects  ;  or 

(b)  A  three  years  systematic  day  training  as  above,  passing 

the  class  examinations,  and  two  other  years  approved 
experience1  under  a  Fellow  of  the  Institute,  or  in  a 
laboratory  or  works  approved  by  the  Council ;  or 

(c)  A  degree,  including  Chemistry  in  the  degree  Examina- 

tion, taken  otherwise  than  in  accordance  with  (d)  and 
(e)  below,  at  a  recognised  University  and  (i.)  a 
further  year's  training  in  Chemistry  at  a  recognised 
University  or  College,  or  (ii.)  two  other  years 
approved  experience1  under  a  Fellow  of  the  Institute, 
or  in  a  laboratory  or  works  approved  by  the  Council ; 
or 

(d)  A  degree  with  first  or  second  class  honours  in  Chemistry 

or  other  diploma  recognised  by  the  Council  as  equiva- 
lent, after  a  three  years  systematic  day  course,  and 
(i.)  a  further  year's  training  in  Chemistry  at  a  recog- 
nised University  or  College  or  (ii.)  two  other  years 
approved  experience1  under  a  Fellow  of  the  Institute, 
or  in  a  laboratory  or  works  approved  by  the  Council ; 
or 

(e)  A  degree  with  first  or  second  class  honours  in  Chemistry 

or  other  degree  or  diploma  recognised  by  the 
Council  as  equivalent,  after  a  four  years  systematic 
day  course  ; 

provided  in  every  case  that  the  Candidate  produces  satis- 
factory evidence  of  training  and  examination  in  Physics, 
Mathematics,  and  an  optional  subject. 

The  optional  subjects  prescribed  are  Agriculture, 
Bacteriology,  Biology,  Botany,  Geology  and  Mineral- 
ogy, Higher  Mathematics,  Mechanics,  Steam  and 
Chemical  Engineering,  Metallurgy,  Higher  Physics, 
and  Physiology. 

1  "  One  year  may  be  accepted  by  the  Council  as  sufficient  where 
the  approved  experience  in  a  laboratory  or  works  has  been  acquired 
subsequently  to  the  prescribed  training  in  a  recognised  University  or 
College." 


46        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

With  the  increase  in  the  number  of  technical  in- 
stitutions giving  instruction  in  science,  the  Council  of 
the  Institute  have  had  to  meet  the  difficulty  of  deciding 
which  should  be  placed  on  the  list  of  those  formally 
recognised  as  affording  a  satisfactory  preparation  for  the 
Associateship.  Having  in  view  the  interests  of  students 
seeking  adequate  preparation  for  their  profession,  the 
Council  have  to  satisfy  themselves  with  regard  to  the 
general  status  of  the  institutions,  the  constitution  of 
the  teaching  staffs,  the  syllabus  of  courses  provided  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  Institute,  the  equipment 
of  the  chemical  and  physical  laboratories,  and  the 
character  of  the  work  done  by  the  students,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  successes  achieved. 

The  success  of  an  institution  in  preparing  candidates 
for  University  Examinations  provides  a  means  of 
gauging  the  efficiency  of  the  institution  seeking 
recognition,  so  that  from  among  those  which  maintain 
a  good  record  of  such  successes  the  Council  of  the 
Institute  may,  from  time  to  time,  add  to  the  list  of 
institutions  formally  recognised. 

For  many  years  the  problem  was  simplified  by  a 
regulation  under  which  day  classes  only  were  accepted. 
Many  technical  schools  providing  only  evening  courses 
were  thereby  excluded  from  the  recognised  list.  Train- 
ing by  evening  classes  was  not  and  still  cannot  be 
regarded  as  entirely  satisfactory,  as  it  entails  a  heavy 
physical  strain  on  the  student  otherwise  engaged 
throughout  the  day ;  but  we  will  show  that  due  pro- 
vision has  now  been  made  for  the  admission  of  evening 
Students  to  the  examination  for  the  Associateship. 

It  will  be  observed,  moreover,  that  a  candidate  who 
has  passed  the  Final  Examination  for  the  Degree  of 
B.Sc.  in  chemistry  in  an  approved  University,  is 
entitled  to  apply  for  admission  to  the  Associateship 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  47 

Examination,  provided  he  has  had  some  experience  of 
practice  and  can  satisfy  the  Council  with  regard  to 
his  training  in  Physics,  Mathematics  and  an  optional 
subject.  To  such  candidates,  therefore,  no  hardship 
arises  from  the  fact  that  they  have  been  trained  in 
evening  classes  or  at  an  institution  which  has  not  been 
formally  recognised. 

The  Council,  in  fact,  have  made  special  provision  for 
candidates  whose  circumstances  have  not  allowed  of 
their  following  the  normal  curriculum.  They  will  con- 
sider applications  for  admission  to  the  Examination 
for  the  Associate  ship  from  candidates  whose  training 
has  not  been  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  schemes 
referred  to,  provided  (i.)  that  they  have  passed  an 
approved  Preliminary  Examination  in  subjects  of 
general  education,  (ii.)  that  they  have  received  system- 
atic instruction  satisfactory  to  the  Council,  by  day  or 
evening  classes,  in  the  prescribed  subjects,  and  have 
passed  approved  examinations  therein,  (iii.)  that  they 
have  been  engaged  in  the  study  and  practice  of 
chemistry  for  at  least  ten  years,  and  (iv.)  that  their 
cases  are  recommended  for  special  consideration  by 
Fellows  of  the  Institute  personally  acquainted  with 
their  work. 

By  accepting  degrees  as  evidence  of  training,  the 
Institute  has  encouraged  many  Candidates  to  take  full 
University  courses,  and  to  this,  no  doubt,  is  largely  due 
the  fact  that,  although  the  majority  of  the  members 
were  admitted  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  modern 
Universities,  over  70%  of  the  Fellows  and  Associates 
are  graduates.  In  the  past  the  training  for  a  Degree  in 
Science  was  often  rather  academic  than  practical,  and, 
therefore,  conducive  to  the  production  of  science 


48        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

teachers  rather  than  of  chemists  preparing  for  other 
professional  practice.  Incidentally  we  would  mention 
also  that  lack  of  suitable  openings  deprived  them  of  op- 
portunities of  proving  their  capacity  in  other  directions. 
The  Institute,  however,  endeavoured  to  promote 
the  practical  side  of  training,  thereby  setting  a  balance 
against  the  preponderance  of  theoretical  instruction 
over  laboratory  work  ;  so  that  in  these  circumstances 
a  further  course  of  practical  training  was  often  found 
advisable.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  character  of 
the  training  and  examinations  of  the  Universities  has 
been  modified  to  render  their  honours  graduates  in 
chemistry  better  prepared  than  formerly  for  the  more 
practical  branches  of  the  profession ;  and  this  has  been 
recognised  by  new  Regulations  of  the  Institute  to 
which  we  will  refer  in  due  course. 

So  long  as  the  recognised  Institutions  remained 
Colleges,  the  Institute  provided  a  qualification  for 
those  who  complied  with  its  regulations  and  passed  its 
examinations  ;  but  when  the  Colleges  became  Uni- 
versities, many  of  their  graduates  were  disinclined  to 
take  further  examinations  and  proceeded  to  appoint- 
ments in  various  branches  of  chemical  work  without 
qualifying  as  Associates  of  the  Institute.  Thus,  in  the 
course  of  time,  an  increasing  body  of  well-trained 
chemists  remained  outside  the  ranks  of  the  Institute, 
which,  therefore,  was  becoming  proportionately  less 
representative  of  the  chemists  of  the  country.  The 
diplomas  of  Fellowship  and  Associateship,  however, 
signified  a  very  high  standard  and  the  influence  of  the 
Institute  was  not  inconsiderable  when  brought  to  bear 
on  public  matters  affecting  the  interests  of  the  pro- 
fession as  a  whole. 

Under  the  conditions  arising  from  the  war,  the 
demand  for  chemists  in  industry  increased  the  oppor- 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  49 

tunities  for  gaining  practical  experience  ;  so  that  the 
Institute,  in  its  endeavours  to  assist  the  Government 
in  meeting  that  demand,  extended  its  appeal  for 
chemists  far  beyond  the  roll  of  Members  and  Registered 
Students.  The  need  for  more  complete  organisation 
became  generally  acknowledged  and  the  Council  of  the 
Institute  had  in  view  a  scheme  for  effecting  that  object 
when  an  independent  movement  in  the  same  direction 
led  to  a  well-attended  meeting  being  held  at  Manchester 
in  November,  1917,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  new 
body  to  be  known  as  the  British  Association  of  Chemists. 
The  promoters,  however,  not  being  desirous  of  creating 
any  unnecessary  additional  organisation,  proposed  that 
if  the  Institute  would  undertake  the  objects  they  had  in 
view,  they  would  not  proceed  to  any  formal  incorpora- 
tion. The  objects  sought  were,  briefly,  to  obtain  power 
to  act  as  sole  registration  authority  for  all  chemists ;  to 
have  the  word  chemist  legally  redefined  ;  to  safeguard 
the  public  by  obtaining  legislation  ensuring  that  certain 
prescribed  chemical  operations  should  be  under  the 
direct  control  of  a  chemist ;  to  raise  the  profession  of  the 
chemist  to  its  proper  position  among  the  other  learned 
professions,  so  that  it  might  attract  a  larger  proportion 
of  the  best  intellects,  and  thereby  secure  a  supply  of 
highly  trained  chemists  adequate  to  the  industrial  needs 
of  the  country. 

Obviously,  the  primary  problem  was  to  determine 
who  should  be  accounted  a  chemist.  The  Institute  by 
its  Regulations  provided  a  standard  of  qualification  ; 
but  there  were  undoubtedly  many  outside  the  mem- 
bership whose  claim  to  rank  as  chemists  could  not 
be  denied.  The  new  Association  could  not  become 
rhe  sole  registration  authority,  since  the  Institute 
already  possessed  registration  powers  under  Royal 


50        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Charter,  and  there  was  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  to 
be  reckoned  with  on  the  definition  of  the  word  chemist. 
On  the  latter  point  representatives  of  the  Institute  had 
already  been  in  conference  with  those  of  the  Phar- 
maceutical Society  and  had  elicited  information  which 
tended  at  least  to  make  the  position  clear.  The  objects 
referred  to  above  were,  in  any  case,  already  part  of  the 
recognised  policy  of  the  Institute. 

In  these  circumstances,  there  remained  only  the  funda- 
mental question  of  establishing  the  qualifications  re- 
garded as  essential  to  chemists  who  should  be  registered. 

It  should  be  recorded  that  the  Council  of  the  In- 
stitute had  already  made  provision  for  the  admission 
of  trained  chemists  who  had  been  prevented  from 
taking  the  Examinations  of  the  Institute  owing  to 
the  war.  This  step  had  been  taken  after  very  careful 
consideration  ;  but  clearly  involved  a  departure  from 
the  previous  practice  of  requiring  all  candidates  for  the 
Associateship  to  pass  an  Examination  conducted  by 
the  Institute. 

The  "  British  Association  of  Chemists  "  was  pro- 
visionally constituted  on  the  understanding  referred 
to  ;  meetings  were  held  in  various  parts  of  the  country  ; 
Local  Sections  were  formed  ;  and  an  Executive  Com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  confer  with  the  Council  of  the 
Institute.  As  a  result  of  the  negotiations  between  the 
two  bodies  an  agreement  was  reached  with  regard  to 
the  question  of  qualification,  and  in  April,  1918,  the 
Council  of  the  Institute  called  an  Extraordinary 
General  Meeting  of  the  Fellows  and  Associates  to 
discuss  the  proposals  involved,  having  in  view  the 
desirability  of  effecting  the  more  complete  organisation 
of  properly  trained  and  competent  chemists. 

At  this  meeting  it  was  decided  that  it  was  desirable 
to  modify  the  existing  requirements  of  the  Institute,  in 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  51 

order  to  include  as  many  chemists  as  possible  in  its 
Membership  (Associateship  and  Fellowship),  so  far 
as  such  a  course  was  within  the  provisions  of  the 
Royal  Charter  ;  and,  therefore,  that  any  candidate 
who  had  complied  with  the  following  conditions 
should  be  accepted  as  eligible  to  apply  for  admission 
to  the  Associateship  of  the  Institute  without  further 
examination  : — 

That  he  has  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  ;  and 
either 

(a)  That  he  has  obtained  a  degree  with  first  or  second  class 

honours  in  Chemistry  (or  other  degree  or  diploma 
recognised  by  the  Council  as  equivalent)  after  a  three 
years  systematic  day  course,  and  (i.)  has  taken  a 
further  year's  training  in  chemistry  at  a  recognised 
University  or  College ;  or  (ii.)  has  had  two  other 
years  approved  experience1  under  a  Fellow  of  the 
Institute  or  in  a  laboratory  or  works  approved  by 
the  Council ;  or 

(b)  That  he  has  obtained  a  degree  with  first  or  second  class 

honours  in  Chemistry  (or  other  degree  or  diploma 
recognised  by  the  Council  as  equivalent)  after  a  four 
years  systematic  day  course  ;  or 

(c)  That  he  has  obtained  a  degree  with  first  or  second  class 

honours  in  Chemistry  after  training  (by  day  or 
evening  classes)  and  experience  equivalent  in  extent 
and  character,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Council,  to  the 
training  and  experience  specified  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding paragraphs ; 

Provided  in  every  case  that  the  Candidate  has  pro- 
duced satisfactory  evidence  of  training  and  exam- 
ination in  Physics,  Mathematics  and  an  optional 
subject.2 

Further,  it  was  considered  desirable  to  prescribe  that, 
until  December  3ist,  1921,  any  Candidate  who  could 

1  One  year  to  be  accepted  by  the  Council  as  sufficient  where  the 
approved  experience  in  a  laboratory  or  works  has  been  acquired 
subsequently  to  the  prescribed  training  in  a  recognised  University  or 
College.  2  See  optional  subjects,  p.  45. 


52        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

produce  evidence  satisfactory  to  the  Council  of  having 
had  a  sufficient  general  and  scientific  education,  and  of 
having  practised  pure  and  applied  chemistry  for  not 
less  than  seven  years,  and  who  held  a  responsible 
position,  should  be  accepted  as  eligible  to  apply  for 
admission  to  the  Associateship  of  the  Institute  with- 
out Examination,  provided  that  he  had  complied  with 
the  provisions  of  the  Charter  of  the  Institute  with 
regard  to  age,  general  education,  and  scientific  train- 
ing— in  Chemistry,  Physics,  Mathematics,  and  an 
optional  subject — and  had  passed  approved  examina- 
tions in  those  subjects. 

It  was  stipulated,  however,  that  in  considering 
applications  under  this  last  clause,  the  Council  should 
expect  candidates  to  produce  evidence  of  having  been 
trained  and  occupied  in  a  manner  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Council,  was  equivalent  to  fulfilling  the  condi- 
tions required  of  candidates  admitted  under  (a)  above. 

It  was  agreed  that  Candidates  who  had  not  complied 
with  the  conditions  specified,  or  with  the  regulations 
adopted  as  a  temporary  (War)  measure  (p.  50),  should 
be  required  to  comply  with  the  Regulations  adopted 
and  published  by  the  Council  hi  July,  1917  (pp.  44-45) ; 
and  that  the  list  of  Institutions  recognised  by  the 
Council  for  the  training  of  chemists  should  be  recon- 
sidered with  a  view  to  its  further  extension. 

Resolutions  were  also  passed  to  the  effect  that  local 
sections  of  the  Institute  should  be  formed  to  maintain 
the  interest  of  the  members  in  the  general  welfare  of 
their  profession  and  to  promote  social  intercourse  ; 
and  that  the  system  of  election  to  the  Council  should 
be  revised  with  a  view  to  securing  direct  representation 
from  different  localities  and  from  different  branches  of 
the  profession.  Further  reference  to  these  matters 
will  be  made  later. 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  53 

With  regard  to  elections  to  the  Fellowship,  and 
elections  to  the  Associateship  under  the  temporary 
(War)  conditions,  the  Council  will  review  its  policy 
from  year  to  year,  immediately  after  each  Annual 
General  Meeting. 

The  Council  have  modified  the  constitution  and 
Regulations  of  the  Institute,  making  impossible  for 
adequately  trained  and  competent  chemists  in  any 
branch  of  the  profession  to  become  duly  registered  by 
the  recognised  professional  body;  but,  notwithstand- 
ing-the  adoption  of  this  policy,  a  newly  constituted 
British  Association  of  Chemists  has  been  formed, 
which  we  understand  is  intended  to  deal  mainly  with 
the  economic  interests  of  chemists. 

Among  the  degrees  and  diplomas  recognised  by 
the  Council  of  the  Institute  as  equivalent  to  a  degree 
with  first  or  second  class  honours  in  chemistry,  we 
would  mention  Degrees  in  Arts  of  recognised  Uni- 
versities wherein  the  requirements  in  chemistry  are  of 
equivalent  standard,  Degrees  in  Science  wherein  an 
equivalent  standard  has  been  attained  under  a 
different  designation,  and  in  the  case  of  matriculated 
students,  Diplomas  such  as  Associateship  of  the  Royal 
Colleges  of  Science,  London  and  Ireland,  and  the 
Associateship  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London 
Institute,  Finsbury  Technical  College. 

It  has  been  noted  (p.  17)  that  in  the  Colleges  provid- 
ing a  diploma  course,  students  who  wish  to  take  the 
diploma  are  required  to  matriculate  or  to  pass  an 
entrance  examination  to  the  College,  and,  in  any  case, 
such  students  must  pass  an  approved  Preliminary 
Examination,  or  otherwise  satisfy  the  Council  with 
regard  to  the  standard  of  their  general  education, 
if  they  wish  to  qualify  for  the  Associateship  of  the 


54        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Institute.  The  subjects  required  to  be  taken  at  the 
entrance  examinations  to  the  Colleges  usually  corre- 
spond with  the  subjects  of  the  courses  provided,  the 
object  being  to  ascertain  if  the  students  have  already 
acquired  sufficient  elementary  knowledge  at  school  to 
enable  them  to  proceed  to  the  more  advanced  work  of 
the  Colleges. 

We  will  now  venture  to  make  a  few  general  observa- 
tions on  the  training  of  a  chemist. 

With  the  commencement  of  College  work  the 
student  enters  on  a  new  phase  of  life,  giving  him  greater 
freedom  than  he  has  enjoyed  at  school,  but  entailing 
greater  responsibility  and  self-reliance.  Technical  educa- 
tion usually  commences  at  about  the  age  of  seventeen. 

The  sciences  with  which  a  chemist  must  be  acquainted 
are  so  connected  and  so  enlighten  one  another  that  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  attain  a  competent  knowledge 
of  any  one  branch,  without  an  acquaintance  with  at 
least  the  fundamental  principles  of  several  allied 
branches.  Though  he  has  comparative  mastery  over 
one  science,  he  will  find  the  study  of  that  obscure  if  he 
neglects  others ;  and  these,  though  subsidiary,  should  be 
pursued  to  such  an  extent  that  the  knowledge  acquired 
is  real  and  useful.  The  man  with  a  smattering  is  found 
to  be  a  source  of  danger  in  his  profession,  whilst  he  con- 
tributes to  the  crowding  out  of  the  more  competent. 
The  trained  technical  man's  bag  of  tools  is  his  brain  ; 
the  tools  consist  of  the  departments  of  knowledge  he  is 
able  to  exercise  ;  the  better  he  is  able  to  use  them  by 
the  aid  of  his  "  common  sense,"  the  more  successful  is 
he  likely  to  be  in  practice  :  the  broader  his  training, 
the  better  his  equipment. 

With  these  considerations  in  view,  there  should  be  no 
question  of  avoiding  the  additional  subjects.  It  is  not 
sought  to  impose  hardship  on  the  students,  but  to 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  55 

advise  and  require  what  is  best  in  their  own  interests. 
It  is  not  our  purpose  here  to  follow  the  technical 
details  of  the  course  or  the  choice  of  particular  text- 
books. These  matters  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of 
teachers.  We  would  mention  one  point,  however, 
which  is  often  ignored.  Students  taking  chemistry  as 
their  principal  subject  have  usually  evinced  a  liking 
for  the  science  while  at  school,  and  there  is  in  most 
instances  considerable  enthusiasm,  since  their  choice 
of  chemistry  as  a  profession  is  deliberate  :  not  a  mere 
drifting  into  a  profession.  It  is  absolutely  essential, 
however,  that  the  students  should  work  and  acquire 
the  habit  of  "  working  hard."  There  should  be  no  place 
in  a  College  laboratory  for  those  who  do  not,  and  here 
let  it  be  well  noted  that  laziness  and  dilatoriness  are 
seldom  chargeable  to  the  evening  class  technical  school 
man,  with  whom  the  more  regularly  trained  graduate 
may  sooner  or  later  come  into  competition. 

Chemistry,  theoretical  and  practical,  must,  of  course, 
be  regarded  as  the  principal  subject,  the  other  subjects 
occupying  a  relatively  smaller  proportion  of  the 
student's  time. 

The  science  of  chemistry  is  based  upon  experiment. 
A  useful  knowledge  of  the  subject  can  hardly  be 
acquired  from  books  alone.  Without  knowledge  of  the 
substances  which  he  handles  a  student  may  carry  out 
experiments  to  the  danger  of  himself  and  others  ;  he 
may  follow  a  book  with  some  degree  of  safety  and 
repeat  series  of  operations  limited  by  his  resources  in 
apparatus  and  materials.  He  may  possibly  learn 
something  by  his  results  and  by  his  mistakes  ;  but, 
without  proper  direction,  he  will  make  little  progress. 

The  education  of  the  student  during  his  school 
career  has  largely  consisted  in  memorising  facts. 
He  has  to  be  trained  to  think,  and  ta  deduce  con- 


56  .     THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

elusions  from  known  facts.  Chemistry  particularly 
calls  into  use  his  common  sense  as  well  as  his  natural 
faculties.  The  faculty  of  observation  should  be 
cultivated  in  all  practical  work,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
recognition  of  substances  by  their  appearance  and, 
with  limitations,  smell,  taste,  and  touch.  The  im- 
pressions thereby  conveyed  frequently  assist  in  deter- 
mining the  course  of  an  investigation.  The  aim  of 
modern  teaching  is  to  produce  thinkers,  not  mere 
accumulators  of  book  knowledge,  not  mere  testing 
machines,  but  men  able  to  exercise  their  knowledge  in 
scientific  enquiry  and  to  develop  initiative  and  resource- 
fulness. The  training  should  be  clearly  defined  and 
efficiently  carried  out  on  broad  lines,  forming  a  sound 
basis  for  experience. 

The  student  must  acquire  some  understanding  of  the 
character  and  effects  of  the  more  important  chemical 
changes  and  processes  in  nature  and  the  arts  in  order 
that  he  may  realise  their  relation  to  the  affairs  of 
everyday  life.  His  course  should  embrace  the  scientific 
study  of  typical  technical  processes  on  the  large  scale. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  work  through  the  usual  ana- 
lytical tables  and  to  repeat  simple  operations  in 
qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis.  The  student 
who  is  to  be  properly  trained  must  be  instructed 
systematically  in  the  philosophy  and  history  of  chem- 
istry ;  not  simply  to  learn  but  to  understand  and  to 
form  a  proper  judgment  upon  the  results  of  his  work. 

The  main  objects  of  training,  therefore,  are  to 
induce  in  the  student  the  habit  of  thought  on  general 
principles,  in  order  that  he  may  realise  their  practical 
bearing ;  to  enable  him  to  carry  out  operations  with 
an  intelligent  appreciation  of  their  meaning  and 
purpose,  and  to  express  his  results  and  conclusions  in 
proper  form. 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  57 

The  methodical  keeping  of  records  of  practical  work 
and  the  preparation  of  reports  should  form  an  im- 
portant feature  of  the  training.  The  records  of  prac- 
tical work  should  be  made  at  the  time,  omitting  no 
essential  details,  the  results  and  -conclusions  being 
summarised  in  a  concise  and  logical  statement.  Candi- 
dates presenting  themselves  for  the  examinations  of 
the  Institute,  and  usually  those  who  are  taking  the 
University  degree  examinations,  are  expected  to 
submit  the  actual  notebooks  used  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  University  or  College  training,  for  inspec- 
tion by  the  Examiners,  who  take  them  into  account 
in  arriving  at  a  decision. 

Reverting  to  the  Regulations  of  the  Institute,  it  should 
be  specially  noted  that  before  presenting  himself 
for  the  Examination  for  the  Associateship,  the  Candi- 
date, unless  he  has  graduated  or  obtained  a  recognised 
diploma,  is  required  to  show  that  he  has  passed  satis- 
factorily the  class  examinations  of  his  College  in  each  of 
the  requisite  subjects.  A  careful  inspection  of  the  sylla- 
bus and  of  past  papers  set  at  the  A.I.C.  Examination 
will  give  the  Candidate  a  good  general  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  knowledge  he  is  expected  to  possess.  In  addition 
to  receiving  systematic  laboratory  instruction,  every 
candidate  should  be  accustomed  to  use  the  microscope, 
spectroscope,  polarimeter,  refractometer,  and  other 
instruments  commonly  employed  in  chemical  labora- 
tories, and  should  also  be  able  to  draw  diagrams  of 
apparatus  and  instruments. 

Modern  chemistry  is  so  closely  allied  to  electrical 
science  that  a  chemist,  particularly  if  he  intends  to 
practise  in  industry,  would  be  poorly  equipped  without 
systematic  training  in  physics,  at  least  up  to  Degree 
standard.  The  minimum  course  prescribed  in  mathe- 


58        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

matics,  however,  is  of  such  a  character  that  many 
students  have  already  covered  the  ground  at  school. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  working  knowledge  of  the 
calculus  has  become  practically  essential. 

In  the  selection  of  an  additional  subject  the  student 
will  be  guided  by  its  usefulness  in  the  line  of  work  to 
which  he  feels  attracted.  Obviously,  a  chemist  intend- 
ing to  practise  in  mineral  chemistry  would  find  it 
necessary  to  know  something  of  mineralogy  and 
geology  ;  the  prospective  public  analyst,  something  of 
physiology  and  botany;  and  the  biological  chemist, 
something  of  biology  and  zoology.  In  fact,  candidates 
taking  Branch  (e) — the  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Drugs, 
etc. — in  the  Associateship  Examination  (pp.  65-67)  are 
required  to  produce  satisfactory  evidence  of  having 
taken  a  course  in  Elementary  Botany,  with  practice  in 
microscopy ;  and,  similarly,  candidates  taking  Branch 
(/) — Biological  Chemistry,  etc. — are  required  to  pro- 
duce satisfactory  evidence  of  having  taken  a  course  in 
Elementary  Biology,  and  of  having  passed  the  Class 
Examinations,  respectively,  in  those  subjects. 

Students  should  have  a  sound  grasp  of  fundamental 
principles  before  they  attempt  any  specialisation,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  generally  held  to  be  desirable  that 
they  should  undergo  systematic  training  at  an  insti- 
tution before  proceeding  to  a  private  or  industrial 
laboratory.  As  the  training  approaches  its  close,  how- 
ever, it  may  be  modified  according  to  the  bent  and  aim 
of  the  individual. 

Promising  students  are  frequently  selected  towards 
the  end  of  their  curricula  to  assist  a  professor  in  the 
conduct  of  research,  either  of  purely  academical 
interest,  or  such  as  involves  the  application  of  know- 
ledge and  skill  to  directly  practical  purposes.  It  is 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  59 

futile  and  a  waste  of  time  for  those  to  attempt  research 
who  are  not  well  equipped  with  theoretical  know- 
ledge and  prepared  by  practical  training.  On  the  other 
hand,  for  a  well-trained  student  to  have  opportunities 
of  working  with  a  skilled  investigator,  to  think  with 
him  and  to  assist  in  carrying  out  his  ideas,  affords 
experience  which  cannot  be  overvalued  when  it  brings 
the  student  under  the  immediate  influence  of  a  dis- 
ciplined mind  accustomed  to  reasoning  out  the  logical 
inferences  from  the  results  of  experiment.  If  he 
possesses  any  aptitude  for  research,  his  genius  will  be 
fostered  by  emulation,  and  any  latent  powers  he  may 
possess  will  enable  him  to  take  advantage  of  the 
chances  offered  him  at  this  period. 

The  universities  have  for  many  years  required  original 
research  as  a  condition  precedent  to  the  granting  of  the 
highest  academical  qualifications,  such  as  M.Sc.  and 
D.Sc.  ;  and  in  some  universities,  as  at  Oxford,  can- 
didates for  honours  in  the  Bachelor  Degree  are  now 
required  to  submit  an  original  thesis  as  an  obligatory 
part  of  the  Examination.  It  is  very  probable  that 
a  similar  requirement  will  be  introduced  by  other 
Universities  in  their  examinations  for  degrees  in 
science. 

The  experienced  research  chemist  constantly  notes 
problems  for  solution  ;  determines  the  direction  of  a 
selected  enquiry,  having  first  acquainted  himself  with 
what  has  already  been  published  on  the  subject ; 
inspires  his  assistants  with  the  train  of  thought  under- 
lying the  operations.  The  Professor  who  acquires  a 
reputation  for  research  attracts  students  to  his  College 
and,  though  all  cannot  realise  the  hope  of  intimate 
association  in  his  work,  the  majority  will  come  under 
the  influence  of  his  enthusiasm. 

After  research  experience  in  a  University  or  College, 


60        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

the  chemist  who  finds  this  branch  of  work  attractive 
may  become  a  candidate  for  a  Research  Fellowship 
or  Scholarship  which  will  enable  him  to  extend  his 
experience,  or  he  may  obtain  an  appointment  in  a 
research  laboratory  connected  with  an  industrial  con- 
cern, or  possibly  in  a  laboratory  maintained  by  an 
association  of  manufacturers,  of  which  there  are 
several  established  in  various  industrial  centres ;  or 
he  may  become  attached  to  the  staff  of  an  Institution, 
such  as  the  Imperial  Institute,  the  Lister  Institute, 
the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  or  an  Agricultural 
Experimental  Station  ;  or  take  a  position  with  a 
consulting  chemist  whose  practice  includes  investiga- 
tions bearing  on  definite  industrial  problems. 

Good  research  chemists  are  comparatively  rare. 
They  vary  greatly,  from  the  solid  straightforward 
thinkers,  who  achieve  results  by  the  laborious  method 
of  exhaustion,  to  those  whose  mental  activity  is  of  such 
a  character  that  they  seize  upon  the  direct  line  of 
attack  by  some  indefinable  instinct  or  intuition. 
Others  again  have  a  greater  faculty  for  directing 
than  for  carrying  out  the  work  themselves,  like  the 
looker-on  who  sees  most  of  the  game.  They  have  time 
for  reflection  and  by  pertinent  questioning  and  reason- 
ing elucidate  ideas  of  importance  which  might  other- 
wise escape  notice.  Accurate  analysts  with  manipula- 
tive skill  are  always  desirable  in  the  research  laboratory. 
Those  who  are  first-rate  glass  workers  or  handy  with 
the  ordinary  tools  of  the  carpenter  and  plumber  are 
invaluable. 

Often  the  discovery  of  new  phenomena  fails  to  find 
immediate  practical  application,  but  the  importance 
of  pioneer  work  is  sooner  or  later  recognised  at  its 
true  value.  The  far-reaching  effects  of  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  derivatives  of  benzene  afford  a  striking 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  61 

illustration  of  the  result s  of  enquiry  primarily  con- 
ducted solely  for  scientific  interest ;  again,  when  helium 
was  discovered,  who  could  have  foretold  that  it  would 
be  used  for  rilling  dirigible  airships,  thus  rendering 
them  immune  from  explosive  bullets. 

The  creation  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  and 
Industrial  Research,  the  increase  by  the  Government 
of  the  amount  allowed  for  grants  in  aid  of  scientific  in- 
vestigation, and  the  establishment  of  Research  Associa- 
tions in  connection  with  various  industries  promise 
well  for  the  further  encouragement  of  research  chemists 
and  the  future  development  of  applied  science. 

The  Universities  and  Colleges  of  to-day,  accepting 
the  principle  that  it  is  not  only  their  business  to  educate, 
but  also  to  advance  knowledge,  have  adopted  the  prose- 
cution of  research  as  one  of  their  most  important 
functions  ;  but  research  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the 
Universities  and  Colleges  ;  and  it  is  no  longer  the 
practice  to  restrict  the  term  to  investigations  in  pure 
science.  The  science  of  chemistry  has  been  advanced, 
particularly  by  the  discovery  of  new  analytical  methods 
and  the  invention  of  new  apparatus,  by  consultants 
and  analysts  in  practice  ;  while  applied  chemistry  has 
naturally  been  promoted  in  the  main  by  chemists 
directly  engaged  in  industry. 

Teachers  undoubtedly  have  the  great  advantage  in 
research  work  that  they  are  constantly  reviewing  the 
great  and  general  principles,  the  full  importance  of 
which  is  always  before  them  ;  and  it  would  seem  that 
the  nearer  a  discovery  is  related  to  such  principles  the 
wider  are  its  ultimate  applications.  The  Universities 
are  increasingly  alive  to  the  fact  that  they  have  to 
produce  chemists  who  can  be  relied  on  to  take  their 
places  in  the  workaday  world.  During  the  war,  for 
instance,  it  was  of  supreme  importance  to  the  troops 


62        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

to  devise,  quickly  and  efficiently,  the  means  of  defence 
against  poisonous  gas  attacks,  or  a  cheap  and  effective 
antiseptic  for  use  in  surgery,  or  a  useful  substitute  for 
leather  or  rubber,  leaving  for  more  peaceful  times  the 
problem  of  adding  further  links  to  some  multi-syllabic 
organic  compound  for  which  no  immediate  use  was 
likely  to  be  found.  Comparatively  few  are  able  to 
occupy  themselves  in  the  pursuit  of  truth  solely  for 
the  pleasure  it  affords  and  without  reward  ;  but  we 
must  be  grateful  that  some  such  exist,  and  acknow- 
ledge that  these  chemist  philosophers  often  produce 
remarkable  results. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  relation  of  research  to 
invention,  and  it  is  not  so  easy  to  determine  where  the 
one  leaves  off  and  the  other  begins,  nor  do  we  need  to 
attempt  it ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  they  may 
follow  one  another  in  a  cycle.  An  investigation  of 
purely  scientific  interest  may  lead  to  the  establishment 
of  a  new  principle  ;  next,  to  the  invention  of  a  new 
contrivance  for  the  application  of  the  principle,  which 
in  its  turn  may  aid  investigators  in  making  a  further 
discovery.  Thus  Newton,  observing  the  production  of 
a  spectrum  of  colours  by  the  passage  of  sunlight 
through  a  hole  in  the  shutter,  is  the  accredited  dis- 
coverer of  the  principle  underlying  the  spectroscope, 
which  has  become  an  important  instrument  in  many 
branches  of  scientific  investigation. 

Few  have  the  good  fortune  or  the  ability  to  initiate 
new  theories  or  to  make  epoch-making  discoveries  ; 
the  majority  must  be  content  to  understand  theories 
and  facts  as  they  are  revealed  to  them.  Success  in 
scientific  investigation  as  in  everything  else  depends 
in  the  long  run  on  the  selection  of  the  right  persons  to 
control  and  to  carry  put  the  work. 

The  pursuit  of  industrial  research  demands  not  only 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  63 

a  high  standard  of  trained  intelligence  but  practical 
acquaintance  with  methods  and  conditions  of  working 
on  the  large  scale,  such  as  are  not  ordinarily  at  the 
command  of  those  who  have  not  had  experience  in 
industry.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  industrial  processes  are  no  longer  determined  by 
purely  empirical  methods,  but  by  the  application  of 
chemical  and  physical  principles,  and  that  a  proper 
laboratory  training  must  precede  work  of  that  kind. 

In  some  of  our  great  manufacturing  centres,  labora- 
tories have  been  established  for  the  benefit  of  certain 
industries  and  maintained  at  the  expense  of  a  group  of 
concerns  for  their  mutual  advantage,  and  this  system  as 
we  have  already  indicated  is  now  being  encouraged  by 
the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research. 

A  Scientific  Research  Association  has  also  been 
founded,  having  its  origin  at  Cambridge.  The  member- 
ship is  open  to  all  who  have  published  research  or 
are  engaged  on  researches  for  publication,  and  the 
associate -membership  to  all  who,  without  being 
engaged  in  research,  have  its  interests  at  heart.  The 
aims  of  the  Association  are  to  advise  scientific  in- 
vestigators and  bodies  administering  public  funds  for 
research,  to  promote  a  wider  understanding  of  the 
value  of  scientific  method,  and  to  consider  the 
possibility  of  organising  a  scheme  of  permanent 
national  endowment  for  research.1 

The  institution  of  scholarships  by  County  Councils, 
City  Companies,  and  private  beneficence,  has  done 
much  to  bring  students  to  certain  colleges,  but  in 
many  instances  they  are  attracted  by  the  high  reputa- 
tion of  the  professors,  by  the  equipment  of  the  labora- 
tories, and  by  the  facilities  afforded  for  research  ; 
but  while  the  publication  of  researches  by  the 

1  Nature,  Nov.  28,  1918. 


64        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

teachers  and  students  brings  into  prominence  those 
institutions  which  produce  men  capable  of  conducting 
original  investigation,  the  best  gauge  of  efficiency  is 
the  success  of  the  students  in  professional  life.  This 
must  be  held  to  apply  to  the  general  run  of  the 
students  and  not  to  a  brilliant  example  here  and 
there,  for  exceptional  ability  will  assert  itself  even  in 
the  face  of  adverse  circumstances. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  university  and 
college  training  lies  in  the  influence  which  such  training 
with  its  associations  exercises  on  individual  character. 
The  provision  of  Students  Unions  and  Debating 
Societies  affords  opportunities  for  discussion  among 
those  preparing  for  the  professions  and  fosters  self- 
reliance,  which  is  a  particularly  valuable  asset.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  students  of  a  department  realise  that  they 
can  assist  in  producing  among  themselves  a  high  tone  at 
College,  so  subsequently  they  may  materially  assist  in 
raising  the  status  of  the  profession  they  ultimately  join. 

The  cost  of  training  at  the  Universities  and  Colleges 
varies  considerably.  At  some  of  the  principal  Colleges 
in  London  the  fees  amount  to  as  much  as  £35  per 
annum,  but  they  are  less  at  others,  and  considerably 
less  at  certain  provincial  Universities  and  Colleges. 
Information  on  this  point  can  be  obtained  directly 
from  the  Secretaries  of  the  Institutions. 

Students  preparing  for  the  Associateship  of  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  should  endeavour  to  keep  in 
touch  with  modern  developments  in  the  branch  of 
work  which  they  intend  to  select  in  the  examination, 
and  should  take  every  opportunity  of  learning  some- 
thing of  the  practical  applications  of  the  selected 
branch.  Those  whose  aim  is  to  take  the  Examination 
in  Chemical  Technology  are  advised  to  devote  particu- 
lar attention  to  the  study  of  Physical  Chemistry, 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  65 

Physics,  and  Mechanics.  We  shall  deal  specially  with 
this  branch  in  a  chapter  devoted  to  Industrial 
Chemistry. 

Under  the  Regulations  of  the  Institute,  part  of  the 
training  may  consist  of  approved  experience  under  a 
Fellow  in  private  practice,  or  in  the  laboratory  of  a 
public  Department  or  in  works.  For  some  .branches 
of  the  Examination — for  instance,  (b)  Metallurgical 
Chemistry,  and  (e)  the  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Drugs, 
to  which  reference  will  be  made  in  due  course — such 
laboratories  often  afford  preparation  of  a  kind  which 
cannot  easily  be  obtained  in  some  of  the  Universities 
and  Colleges.  The  same  work  may  be  taught  in  the 
Colleges — perhaps  more  systematically — but  the  con- 
ditions of  working  are  different  and  though  students 
trained  entirely  at  Colleges  are  successful  in  the 
Examination,  they  miss  the  advantages  of  private 
pupilage  :  training  in  working  quickly  and  the  ex- 
perience of  actual  practice. 

Each  candidate  for  the  Examination  is  required  to 
show,  in  addition  to  a  general  knowledge  of  all  branches 
of  chemistry,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  at  least  one 
of  the  following  branches,  to  be  selected  by  himself : — 

(a)  Mineral  Chemistry  :  including  general  inorganic  quali- 

tative and  quantitative  analysis,  and  the  preparation 
of  pure  inorganic  substances. 

(b)  Metallurgical    Chemistry :     Sampling,     analysis    and 

assay  of  metals,  ores,  fuel,  metallurgical  products, 
and  minerals  used  in  metallurgical  processes,  with 
reports  thereon ;  analysis  of  producer  and  other  fuel 
gases,  and  of  furnace  gases  ;  calorimetry  of  fuels ;  the 
principles  involved  in  the  preparation  of  alloys  ; 
practical  knowledge  of  electrolytic  methods,  and  of 
the  construction  and  use  of  electrical  furnaces  and 
other  apparatus  employed  in  metallurgical  in- 
vestigations. Metallography  :  preparation  of  speci- 


66        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

mens,  and  recognition,  under  the  microscope,  of  the 
characteristic  structures  of  steel  and  common 
alloys,  and  of  the  typical  structural  changes  produced 
on  them  by  various  forms  of  thermal  and  mechanical 
treatment.  Pyrometry  :  calibration  of  pyrometers  ; 
determination  of  the  temperatures  of  furnaces  and 
the  melting-points  of  metals  and  alloys  ;  observation 
of  critical  changes  in  alloys,  including  steel. 

(c)  Physical  Chemistry  :   Candidates  are  expected  to  show 

special  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  of  the 
methods,  instruments  and  apparatus  employed  in 
physico-chemical  processes  and  investigations. 

(d)  Organic    Chemistry :     the    preparation,    examination, 

analysis,  and  detailed  investigation  of  organic 
materials  generally,  including  commercial  products. 

(e)  The    Chemistry    (including   Microscopy)    of  Food   and 

Drugs,  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs,  Soils,  and 
Water :  including  the  examination  and  analysis  of 
any  article  within  the  scope  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and 
Drugs  Acts;  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs,  Soils, 
and  Water  ;  the  detection  and  determination  of  the 
active  ingredients  in  crude  drugs,  pharmacopceial 
and  antiseptic  preparations  and  prescriptions  ;  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  toxicological  analysis  ; 
detection  of  blood  stains  ;  the  examination  of  urine. 
Candidates  are  expected  to  produce  duly  authenti- 
cated notebooks  containing  evidence  of  systematic 
instruction  and  practice  in  Microscopy.  They  must 
be  familiar  with  the  microscope  and  its  accessories 
and  other  physical  apparatus  employed.  They  are 
given  practical  work  and  a  written  paper  in  Micro- 
scopy. There  is  also  an  oral  examination  in  the 
recognition  of  chemicals  and  drugs  ordinarily  found 
in  commerce.  They  are  required  to  show  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  commoner  impurities  and  falsifica- 
tions in  drugs,  their  recognition  and  importance  with 
respect  to  the  pharmacological  action  and  thera- 
peutical value  of  the  drugs;  the  toxicological  effects 
of  chemicals  and  drugs,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
dangers  from  poisoning  by  chemicals  used  in  trade 
processes.  They  are  also  expected  to  possess  a 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  67 

<• 

general  knowledge  of  the  Acts  relating  to  the  Sale  of 
Food  and  Drugs,  to  the  Sale  of  Poisons,  and  to 
Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs. 

(/)  Biological  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology;  Fermentation 
and  Enzyme  Action :  with  special  reference  to  the 
Chemistry  and  Bacteriology  of  foodstuffs,  water 
supply,  and  sewage  disposal,  and  the  application  of 
Biological  Chemistry  to  industries  and  manufactures. 

(g)  Chemical  Technology:  Candidates  are  expected  to 
give  evidence  of  a  good  general  knowledge  of 
chemical  technology,  comprising  :  The  application 
of  well-known  chemical  and  physical  laws  to  in- 
dustrial operations  ;  the  development,  control,  and 
transmission  of  power  and  heat ;  a  working  know- 
ledge of  operations  and  plant,  of  which  general  use 
is  made  in  chemical  industry  for  the  treatment  and 
handling  of  materials,  finished  products,  waste  pro- 
ducts and  effluents,  including  a  practical  acquaint- 
ance with  fittings  and  stores  ;  the  properties  of 
materials  which  affect  their  application  to  the  con- 
struction of  plant  and  apparatus  in  chemical  works  ; 
some  ability  in  interpreting  drawings  of  plant  and 
in  making  rough  sketches  ;  the  calculation  of  work- 
ing costs,  and  a  general  knowledge  of  works  accounts. 
The  Candidate  is  required  to  select  one  important 
branch  of  industry,  by  which  his  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  of  the  examination  may  be  decided.  At 
least  two  papers  are  set  on  the  general  principles 
of  chemical  technology  and  two  papers  on  the 
selected  industry.  In  the  oral  part  of  the  examina- 
tion, the  candidate  is  required  to  interpret  drawings 
and /or  models  of  plant  and  fittings,  and  to  show  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  working  of  plant.  The 
practical  work  includes  technological  analyses,  the 
examination  of  raw  materials  and  products  con- 
nected with  the  selected  industry. 

The  Associateship  (A.I.C.)  Examination  occupies  at 
least  five  days,  during  which  the  Examiners  are  at 
liberty  to  apply  any  test  which  they  think  desirable, 
either  orally  or  by  writing,  or  by  experimental  work, 


68        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

in  order  to  obtain  evidence  of  the  candidates'  know- 
ledge of  theoretical  and  practical  chemistry.  Candi- 
dates are  required  to  answer  a  paper  of  questions, 
chiefly  on  the  branch  selected,  and  are  examined  orally 
as  to  their  general  knowledge  of  chemistry.  They  are 
also  required  to  translate,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Examiners,  technical  literature  from  French  and  from 
one  other  foreign  language  allowed  by  the  Council, 
with  the  aid  of  dictionaries. 

They  must  also  be  familiar  with  the  use  of  such 
scientific  instruments  as  are  commonly  employed  in 
chemical  laboratories. 

Any  candidate  is  at  liberty  to  present  a  thesis  or 
dissertation  upon  any  chemical  subject,  or  any  original 
investigation,  to  which  he  has  given  special  attention, 
and  the  Examiners  will  take  it  into  account  in  arriving 
at  a  decision. 

During  the  practical  part  of  the  examinations,  candi- 
dates are  at  liberty  to  consult  any  books  of  reference 
which  they  may  bring  with  them,  or  which  are  in  the 
Library  of  the  Institute,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  local  examin- 
ation, in  the  Institution  where  the  examination  is  held. 

Examinations,  in  spite  of  their  defects,  have  proved 
a  valuable  incentive  to  educational  progress.  At  school 
and  at  the  Universities  some  form  of  periodical  examina- 
tion is  an  aid  to  determining  the  fitness  of  the  student 
to  proceed  to  higher  instruction.  Examinations  thus 
provide  the  student  with  a  definite  aim  :  the  attainment 
of  a  higher,  standard  ;  until  eventually  a  standard  is 
reached  of  such  a  character  ,as  to  form  a  basis  on 
which  he  may  begin  to  build  his  experience. 

In  common  with  other  professional  bodies,  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  is  concerned  with  the  problem 
of  supplying  the  demand  of  the  public  for  evidence  of 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  69 

competency.  Those  who  are  responsible  for  the  con- 
duct of  the  examinations  are  fully  alive  to  the  object 
in  view,  viz.  to  ascertain  whether  the  candidates  are 
likely  to  prove  useful  professional  men.  The  A.I.C. 
examination  fulfils  that  object.  The  Board  of  Exam- 
iners consists  of  representative  teachers  and  practising 
consultants,  and  under  the  method  adopted  in  .con- 
ducting the  examination,  many  of  the  drawbacks 
common  to  such  tests  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
There  is  a  sense  of  proportion  in  the  relative  standards 
required  in  the  various  parts  of  the  examination,  so 
that  it  constitutes  a  satisfactory  test  as  a  whole,  and 
is  of  such  character  and  scope  that  it  tests  real  know- 
ledge rather  than  memory ;  ability  and  initiative 
rather  than  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  text -book 
drill.  Candidates  are  expected  to  give  definite  evi- 
dence of  their  usefulness  for  practical  purposes  :  to 
show  that  they  can  carry  out  a  reasonable  amount  of 
work  accurately  and  in  a  reasonable  period  of  time.  The 
examination  consists  largely  of  problems  occurring  in 
everyday  practice,  requiring  not  merely  an  acquaint- 
ance with  analytical  charts,  but  the  possession  of  a 
sound  knowledge  of  chemical  laws  and  a  deal  of  common 
sense.  There  is  little  room  for  guess-work,  and  it  is  a 
sound  policy  for  the  candidate,  both  in  written  and 
practical  work  to  make  sure  that  what  is  done  is  done 
well,  rather  than  to  attempt  too  much  and  do  it 
badly.  Importance  is  attached  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  work  is  recorded  ;  every  step  of  consequence 
must  be  noted  with  all  essential  calculations. 

We  have  mentioned  that  candidates  are  allowed  to 
consult  books  of  reference  during  the  practical  work 
and  dictionaries  when  they  are  translating  foreign 
technical  literature ;  and,  in  general,  it  may  be 
said  that  an  endeavour  is  made  to  place  them  as 


70        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

nearly  as  possible  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of 
practice  ;  but  collusion  is  strictly  forbidden.  The 
Examiners  are  in  constant  touch  with  the  candidates, 
and  are  thus  the  better  able  to  arrive  at  a  just  decision 
in  each  case.  Such  a  system  gives  the  candidate  a  fair 
chance,  eliminates  the  possibility  of  the  incompetent 
passing,  and  frustrates  the  tendency  to  "  cram."  The 
examination  is  not  in  any  sense  competitive.  Local 
examinations  are  held  in  various  centres  at  home  and 
in  Overseas  Dominions  where  suitable  supervision 
and  accommodation  can  be  provided. 

The  passing  of  examinations,  however,  though  it 
indicates  enterprise  and  a  determination  to  get  on  wi 
the  world,  is  obviously  of  less  importance  than  the 
training  it  necessitates  ;  the  real  value  of  the  training 
is  shown  by  the  ability  of  the  candidate  to  deal  with 
the  problems  with  which  he  is  confronted,  not  only  in 
the  examinations,  but  in  professional  life  when  he  must 
learn  to  form  his  own  opinions,  rely  on  his  own  judg- 
ment, and  acquire  initiative  in  tackling  questions  the 
answers  of  which  are  not  always  readily  available  in 
books.  We  will  indicate  in  a  subsequent  chapter  how 
he  may  derive  considerable  advantage  by  associating 
himself  with  societies  devoted  to  his  subject,  which, 
by  means  of  meetings  for  the  reading  of  papers  and  by 
the  publication  of  journals,  disseminate  useful  know- 
ledge, afford  opportunities  for  mutual  help,  keep  their 
members  in  touch  with  progress,  and  thereby  widen 
the  horizon  of  their  respective  spheres  of  work. 

Apart  from  the  passing  of  the  necessary  examination, 
the  successful  candidate  has  the  satisfaction  of  knowing 
that  he  has  attained  a  definite  position  in  having  ac- 
quired membership  of  a  recognised  professional  body 
and  he  can  therefore  take  a  part  in  promoting  the 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  71 

general  welfare  of  his  calling.  He  should  make  it  his 
business  to  advance  the  interests  of  his  profession  in 
any  way  that  lies  in  his  power,  and  particularly  by 
maintaining  a  high  standard  in  his  professional  work 
and  conduct. 

Though  our  educational  system  may  have  its  short- 
comings, we  think  it  may  be  claimed  that'  our  leaders 
of  industry  find  our  trained  chemists  at  least  as  well 
prepared  for  their  profession  as  those  of  other  coun- 
tries. Frequent  and  progressive  reforms  of  regulations 
and  curricula  are  essential ;  there  will  never  be  a  time 
when  the  cry  for  such  reforms  will  be  silenced.  No 
ideal  is  everyone's  ideal,  and  if  any  be  thought  to  be 
attained  it  must  in  the  course  of  time  be  modified 
with  the  trend  of  progress. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that 
we  possess  the  machinery  for  the  production  of  a 
constant  supply  of  well-trained  chemists  capable  of 
adapting  themselves  usefully  to  the  needs  of  the 
country,  and  we  may  now  consider  the  position  of  this 
product  of  the  Universities  and  Colleges.  He  has 
probably  taken  a  degree  or  qualification  and  pro- 
ceeds to  seek  an  opening  for  a  career,  or,  if  means 
are  available  perhaps  by  obtaining  a  scholarship, 
he  will  undergo  some  form  of  special  training  for 
a  higher  Degree,  such  as  Ph.D.,  M.Sc.,  or  D.Sc.,  in 
the  hope  of  increasing  his  chances  of  making  a  good 
start.  Possibly  he  may,  for  a  time,  devote  himself  to 
research,  or  he  may  go  abroad  to  gain  the  advantage 
of  working  under  other  teachers,  and  to  improve 
his  acquaintance  with  foreign  languages.  He  may 
specialise  in  a  branch  of  technology,  though  in  this 
case  he  should  be  careful  to  avoid  losing  touch  with 


72        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

the  current  work  of  his  profession  or  he  may  find  that 
when  openings  are  not  plentiful  in  the  branch  he  has 
selected  he  is  not  readily  equipped  for  others. 

Some  of  the  Universities  and  Colleges  have  established 
courses  in  the  applications  of  science  to  particular 
industries,  and  grant  diplomas  in  various  branches  of 
technology.  Again,  as  at  the  Royal  Technical  College, 
Glasgow,  and  the  Imperial  College  of  Science  and 
Technology,  many  of  the  students  supplement  their 
normal  training  by  a  course  covering  a  wide  field 
of  chemical  technology,  so  that  they  gain  an  in- 
sight into  several  industries.  At  Glasgow,  too,  facili- 
ties are  afforded  them  for  visiting  and  working  for  a 
time  in  some  of  the  works  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
results  of  this  training  have  been  clearly  illustrated  by 
the  success  of  the  students  from  the  College,  who  are 
to  be  found  in  responsible  positions,  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad. 

Much  has  been  done  to  promote  specialised  training, 
and  the  following  schedule,  though  mostly  prepared 
before  the  war  and  probably  incomplete,  may  serve  a 
good  purpose  in  indicating  the  institutions  providing 
courses  of  this  character  : — 

Agriculture :  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen  University ; 
The  University  College  of  Wales,  Aberystwyth  ;  Agri- 
cultural College,  Aspatria,  Cumberland ;  University 
College  of  North  Wales,  Bangor  ;  Agricultural  College, 
Bedford ;  The  University,  Bristol ;  The  University  of 
Cambridge ;  Essex  County  Technical  Laboratories, 
Chelmsford ;  Dauntsey  Agricultural  School,  West 
Lavington,  Devizes  ;  Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ire- 
land, Dublin;  Edinburgh  and  East  of  Scotland  College 
of  Agriculture  ;  West  of  Scotland  Agricultural  College, 
Glasgow ;  College  of  Agriculture  and  Horticulture, 
Holmes  Chapel,  Cheshire ;  The  Midland  Agricultural 
and  Dairy  College,  Kingston-on-Soar,  Derby ;  The 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  73 

University,  Leeds ;  Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne;  Harper  Adams  Agricultural  College,  Newport, 
Salop  ;  The  University,  Oxford  ;  The  Harris  Institute, 
Preston ;  University  College,  Reading ;  Horticultural 
College  for  Women,  Swanley ;  Agricultural  College,  Tarn- 
worth ;  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  College,  Uckfield, 
Sussex  ;  Usk :  Monmouthshire  Agricultural  Institution  ; 
South-Eastern  Agricultural  College,  Wye,  Kent. 
Applied  Chemistry,  Chemical  Engineering  and  Technology  : 
Merchant  Venturers'  Technical  College  and  the  Uni- 
versity, Bristol ;  Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ireland, 
Dublin ;  Heriot-Watt  College,  Edinburgh ;  Royal 
Technical  College,  Glasgow  ;  Municipal  Technical  School, 
Hull ;  Battersea  Polytechnic,  London ;  East  Ham 
Technical  College,  London  ;  Imperial  College  of  Science 
and  Technology,  London  ;  University  College,  London  ; 
Municipal  School  of  Technology,  Manchester ;  The 
University,  Sheffield. 

Biological  Chemistry,  Bacteriology,  Fermentation,  etc.  :  The 
University,  Birmingham  (Brewing)  ;  The  University, 
Bristol  (Bio-Chemistry)  ;  The  University,  Cambridge 
(Physiological  Chemistry)  ;  University  College  of  South 
Wales  and  Monmouthshire,  Cardiff  (Hygienic  Chem- 
istry) ;  The  University,  Glasgow  (Bacteriology)  ;  The 
University,  Liverpool  (Bio-Chemistry)  ;  Battersea  Poly- 
technic, London  (Bacteriology)  ;  King's  College,  London 
(Bacteriology)  ;  Sir  John  Cass  Technical  Institute, 
London  (Brewing,  Malting  and  Fermentation)  ;  Uni- 
versity College,  London  (Pathological  Chemistry  and 
Physiological  Chemistry)  ;  The  Victoria  University, 
Manchester  (Biological  Chemistry)  ;  The  Municipal 
School  of  Technology,  Manchester  (Brewing). 

Fuel  and  Gas  :  Municipal  Technical  School,  Birmingham 
(Gas)  ;  City  Technical  College,  Bradford  (Gas)  ;  Royal 
Technical  College,  Glasgow  (Gas)  ;  Central  Technical 
School,  Leeds  (Gas)  ;  The  University,  Leeds  (Coal,  Gas 
and  Fuel  Industries,  with  Metallurgy)  ;  Imperial  College 
of  Science  and  Technology,  London  (Fuel)  ;  Sir  John 
Cass  Technical  Institute,  London  (Fuel)  ;  Armstrong 
College,  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (Fuel  and  Gas) ;  School  of 
Mines,  Treforest,  Glamorganshire  (Coal,  Fuel,  etc.)  ; 


74       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Wigan  and  District  Mining  and  Technical  College,  Wigan 
(Fuel  and  Metallurgy). 

Glass  Technology  :  University  of  Sheffield. 

Leather  and  Tanning :  The  University,  Glasgow  ;  The 
University,  Leeds ;  Leathersellers'  Technical  College, 
London  ;  Municipal  Technical  Institute,  Warrington. 

Metallurgy  :  The  University,  and  the  Municipal  Technical 
School,  Birmingham ;  City  Technical  College,  Brad- 
ford ;  The  University,  Cambridge  ;  University  College 
of  South  Wales  and  Monmouthshire,  Cardiff ;  Central 
Technical  School  and  The  University,  Leeds ;  The 
University,  Liverpool ;  Birkbeck  College,  London  ; 
Royal  School  of  Mines  (Imperial  College  of  Science  and 
Technology),  London ;  King's  College,  London ;  Sir 
John  Cass  Technical  Institute,  London ;  S.  W.  Poly- 
technic, Chelsea,  London;  The  University  and  the 
Municipal  School  of  Technology,  Manchester ;  Armstrong 
College,  Newcastle-on-Tyne ;  University  College,  Notting- 
ham ;  The  University,  Sheffield ;  Staffordshire  County 
Council ;  The  Technical  College,  Swansea ;  Wigan  and 
District  Mining  and  Technical  College. 

Mining  :  The  School  of  Mines,  Camborne  ;  Fife  Mining 
School,  Cowdenbeath  ;  Birkbeck  College,  London  ;  The 
Royal  School  of  Mines  (Imperial  College  of  Science  and 
Technology),  London ;  Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne  ;  School  of  Metalliferous  Mining,  Redruth  ;  The 
University,  Sheffield ;  Staffordshire  County  Council  ; 
The  School  of  Mines,  Treforest,  Glamorgan  ;  Wigan  and 
District  Mining  and  Technical  College.' 

Oil  and  Fats,  Soap,  etc.  :  Central  Technical  School,  Leeds  ; 
Battersea  Polytechnic,  London  ;  City  of  London  College. 

Optics :  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technology, 
London  ;  Northampton  Institute,  London. 

Papermaking  :  Royal  Technical  College,  Glasgow  ;  Batter- 
sea  Polytechnic,  London  ;  Municipal  School  of  Techno- 
logy, Manchester. 

Photography:  Central  Technical  School,  Leeds;  Municipal 

School  of  Technology,  Manchester. 
Physical  Chemistry  and  Electro-Chemistry  :  The  University, 

Aberdeen ;    The  University,  Birmingham ;    University 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  75 

of  Liverpool ;  University  College,  London ;  Imperial 
College  of  Science  and  Technology,  London ;  The 
University,  Manchester. 

Pottery  :  Staffordshire  County  Council ;  North  Stafford- 
shire Technical  School,  Stoke-on-Trent. 

Sugar  :   Royal  Technical  College,  Glasgow. 

Textile  Manufacture  :  Royal  Technical  College,  Glasgow  ; 
The  University,  Leeds  ;  Municipal  School  of  Technology, 
Manchester. 

Tinctorial  Chemistry,  Dyeing,  Bleaching,  Calico  Printing : 
Municipal  Technical  Institute,  Belfast  (Bleaching,  Dye- 
ing) ;  City  Technical  College,  Bradford  (Dyeing)  ; 
Royal  Technical  College,  Glasgow  (Bleaching,  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing)  ;  Technical  College,  Huddersfield 
(Tinctorial  Chemistry)  ;  The  University,  Leeds  (Dyeing 
and  Tinctorial  Chemistry)  ;  Battersea  Polytechnic, 
London  (Dyeing)  ;  Municipal  School  of  Technology, 
Manchester  (Bleaching,  Dyeing,  Printing,  etc.) ;  Technical 
College,  Paisley  (Dyeing)  ;  Technical  School,  Rad- 
cliffe,  Lanes.  (Cotton,  Dyeing  and  Bleaching) ;  Royal 
Technical  Institute,  Salford  (Dyeing  and  Calico  Print- 
ing). 

With  the  progress  made  in  thus  developing  our 
technical  educational  system,  students  can  proceed 
from  one  institution  to  another  to  secure  such  special- 
ised instruction  ;  those  who  have  taken  such  courses 
generally  reap  the  benefit  of  doing  so,  and  seldom 
lack  opportunities  of  finding  appointments  suitable 
to  their  attainments.  The  provision  of  these  courses 
has  encouraged  the  better  equipment  of  students  for 
taking  part  in  the  conduct  of  many  processes  on  the 
large  scale,  by  supplying  them  with  much  of  the  border- 
land knowledge  between  science  and  industry,  though 
some  manufacturers,  who  prefer  to  take  a  hand  in 
shaping  their  chemists  to  their  own  liking,  still  hold 
the  opinion  that  such  knowledge  can  best  be  acquired 
by  experience  in  works,  and  rely  on  the  Colleges  to 


76        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

teach  what  cannot  be  learned  on  the  works.  All  are 
agreed,  however,  that  a  good  all-round  training  is 
essential,  so  that  the  chemist  may  be  more  generally 
adaptable,  especially  as  the  advance  in  industrial 
methods  is  so  rapid  that  it  is  very  difficult  for  the 
College  courses  of  instruction  to  keep  an  even  pace 
with  modern  progress. 

Students  intending  to  enter  industrial  work  should, 
in  any  case,  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  of 
seeing  manufacturing  operations,  and  of  broadening 
their  views  on  the  applications  of  their  science,  which 
must  remain  somewhat  narrow  so  long  as  their  experi- 
ence is  restricted  solely  to  the  laboratory.  They  should 
endeavour  to  see  something  of  metals  in  the  working 
— with  their  furnaces,  steam-hammers  and  rolls  ;  of 
heavy  chemicals — with  their  great  stills,  lead -lined 
tanks,  iron  evaporating  pans,  pressure  eggs,  stone 
filters,  filter  presses,  and  other  appliances ;  and  of 
many  other  important  industrial  products,  with  the 
method  of  handling  them  and  the  special  plant  em- 
ployed in  their  manufacture. 

The  Institute  of  Chemistry  has  established  a  scheme 
of  lectures  by  technical  chemists  of  experience  in 
various  branches  and  by  publishing  the  lectures  has 
provided  useful  monographs  on  the  history  and 
development  of  the  industries  to  which  they  relate. 
Similar  lectures  have  been  given  from  time  to  time  in 
some  of  the  Universities  and  Colleges,  and  have  tended 
to  illustrate  to  students  the  difference  between  work- 
ing with  grams  and  tons  of  material. 

Before  passing  to  the  consideration  of  the  various 
branches  of  practice  and  the  prospects  they  offer, 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  fact  that  Associates 
of  the  Institute  who  can  show,  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Council,  that  they  have  been  continuously  engaged 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  77 

in  the  study  and  practice  of  applied  chemistry  for  three 
years  since  their  admission  can  proceed  to  the  Fellow- 
ship by  examination,  or  those  who  have  carried  out 
original  research,  or  devised  processes  or  inventions, 
or  otherwise  satisfied  the  Council  that  they  have  ful- 
filled equivalent  conditions,  can  apply  for  election  to 
the  Fellowship  without  examination.  The  Fellowship 
(F.I.C.),  in  any  case,  represents  a  minimum  of  seven 
years'  systematic  training  and  experience.  The  stimulus 
given  to  Associates  to  pursue  original  investigation  in 
order  to  attain  the  higher  grade  should,  we  think, 
exercise  a  marked  effect  on  the  progress  of  British 
chemistry  at  this  critical  juncture. 


PROSPECTS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  PRACTICE 

"DECKER  in  his  Physica  Subterranea  describes 
JZ)  chemists  as  "  a  strange  class  of  mortals  impelled 
by  an  almost  insane  impulse  to  seek  their  pleasure 
among  smoke  and  vapour,  soot  and  flame,  poison  and 
poverty."  The  last  word  from  the  quotation  will  not 
appeal  to  the  modern  student  of  chemistry  or  to 
those  who  bear  the  expense  of  his  education.  Riches 
are  not  always  to  men  of  understanding,  nor  yet 
favour  to  men  of  skill ;  but  time  and  chance  hap- 
peneth  to  them  all. 

Among  the  Greeks  it  was  held  that  the  standard  of 
thought  was  lowered  by  attempting  to  turn  scientific 
knowledge  to  practical  ends,1  and  until  comparatively 
modern  times,  men  of  science  pursued  their  investiga- 
tions mainly  without  thought  of  material  gain.  Even 
if  science  is  held  to  be  non-humanistic  and  too  material- 
istic, it  is  none  the  less  a  manifestation  of  the  progress 

1  Bacon,  who  tells  us  that  the  true  and  legitimate  goal  of  the 
sciences  is  none  other  than  to  endow  human  life  with  new  dis- 
coveries and  resources,  protests  against  the  view  held  in  his  time, 
that  the  majesty  of  the  human  mind  was  impaired  by  long  and 
frequent  employment  upon  experiments.  He  also  states  that  Plato 
held  that  practice  led  men  from  the  contemplation  of  truth  and  so 
degraded  their  intellect ;  and  that  Archimedes  was  half  ashamed  of 
his  inventions. 

"  Archimedes  regarded  the  engines  of  war  which  he  invented 
not  as  being  constructed  by  serious  labour,  but  as  the  mere  holiday 
sports  of  a  geometrician,  and  although  he  acquired  the  glory  of  a 
more  than  human  intellect  he  would  not  condescend  to  leave  behind 
him  any  writings  about  his  engines,  regarding  the  whole  business  of 
mechanics  and  the  useful  arts  as  base  and  vulgar." — Plutarch's 
Lives  :  Marcellus. 

78 


PROSPECTS   OF   PRACTICE  79 

of  man,  the  result  of  his  inquisitiveness,  and  one  of 
the  highest  forms  of  mental  activity  and  achieve- 
ment. To  what  does  it  all  lead,  but  to  the  better 
realisation  of  his  place  in  the  universe  ?  There  can  be 
nothing  derogatory  in  making  a  right  use  of  know- 
ledge gained  and  it  is  no  longer  supposed  that  those 
who  pursue  science  are  only  assisting  the  machina- 
tions of  the  evil  one.  We  look  more  and  mere  to  science 
to  provide  all  that  we  require — our  clothes  and  food, 
and,  indeed,  everything  that  contributes  to  our  comfort. 
Yet,  even  less  than  forty  years  ago,  there  was  pro- 
nounced opposition  to  the  idea  of  creating  a  chemical 
profession,  though  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
some  of  those  who  cried  loudest  against  the  pursuit 
of  science  for  gain  have  become,  in  the  course  of  years, 
leaders  in  agitating  for  its  fullest  applications. 

We  have  shown  that  the  profession  of  chemistry  is 
attracting  an  increasing  number  of  well-trained  and 
energetic  workers  who  are  alive  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
no  longer  solely  an  occupation  for  the  dilettante.  In 
this  may  be  read  a  reversal  of  the  dictum  of  Paracelsus 
to  which  we  have  already  referred.  The  business  of 
the  chemist  is  not  only  to  make  medicines,  but  to 
make  gold — by  the  applications  of  his  science  to  the 
affairs  of  e very-day  life.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
chemists  do  not  appear  to  regard  the  matter  only  in 
that  light :  they  seek  knowledge  rather  than  affluence. 
The  work  of  the  chemist,  in  its  character,  its  origin- 
ality or  otherwise,  its  scale  of  operations,  and  its 
responsibility  necessarily  varies  ;  but  whether  it  be 
simple  or  complex,  original  or  routine,  on  the  laboratory 
or  the  works  scale,  merely  of  experimental  interest  or 
involving  heavy  financial  or  other  responsibility,  it 
should  be  carried  out  in  a  scientific  spirit. 


8o        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

To  be  successful  in  almost  any  professional  career  a 
man  must  not  only  be  properly  qualified,  but  be  known 
and  esteemed  among  his  brethren.  His  initiation  into 
the  practical  business  of  life  is  commonly  the  result 
of  the  recommendation  of  someone  who  knows  him 
and  can  speak  well  of  his  work,  and  his  advancement 
depends  largely  on  the  repute  in  which  he  is  held  by 
his  fellow  workers.  The  chemist,  therefore,  will  be 
well  advised  to  join  one  or  more  of  the  recognised 
societies  connected  with  his  science,  to  which  further 
reference  will  be  made  later.  The  choice  will  be  deter- 
mined to  some  extent  by  the  nature  of  his  work  ;  but 
this  should  be  the  first  step  to  be  taken  as  soon  as  he 
has  commenced  to  earn  his  living  by  his  profession. 
If  he  is  able  to  submit  an  original  paper  or  two  and 
contribute  usefully  to  the  discussions,  he  will  be  judged 
by  his  work  and  opinions  ;  and,  in  the  course  of  time, 
find  his  place  among  those  who  are  active  in  furthering 
the  common  interests  of  his  science  and  his  profession. 

We  have  indicated  that  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  marked  by  an  enthusiasm  for  science 
which  led  to  the  provision  of  increased  educational 
facilities.  With  a  more  restricted  field  the  old  training 
was  probably  more  thorough,  so  far  as  it  went  ;  but 
until  the  seventies  there  were  very  few  places  where 
practical  chemistry  was  taught  ;  and  for  practical 
physics  there  was  scarcely  a  laboratory  in  the  country 
until  1866,  when  Prof.  Carey  Foster  started  one  at 
University  College,  London  ;  though  it  is  true  that, 
Thomson — Lord  Kelvin — had  students  working  with 
him  at  an  earlier  date.  There  were  giants  in  those 
days,  men  of  renown.  There  are  giants  in  our  time, 
and  no  doubt  many  not  yet  come  to  their  full  stature, 
but  some  of  those  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to 
the  study  of  their  subject  and  have  established  their 


PROSPECTS   OF   PRACTICE  81 

positions  are  rather  apt  to  overlook  the  fact  that 
students  of  the  present  day,  during  their  short  training, 
have  to  cover  the  far  wider  field  which  has  been  ex- 
plored and  opened  up  during  the  intervening  period. 
Chemical  science  is  perhaps  hardly  in  the  prospecting 
stage,  but  the  coming  generation  have  an  even  greater 
chance  than  the  present  of  distinguishing  themselves 
in  its  development. 

A  chemist  may  be  engaged,  either  as  a  principal  or 
as  an  assistant,  in  a  variety  of  positions  :  (i)  in 
private  practice,  which  may  be  consulting  and  analy- 
tical practice,  either  general  in  character  or  with  a 
marked  bias  towards  some  particular  branch,  such  as, 
in  the  case  of  a  public  analyst,  the  chemistry  of  food 
and  drugs,  or  in  the  case  of  an  agricultural  analyst, 
the  chemistry  of  soils,  fertilisers,  feeding-stuffs,  etc.  ; 
(2)  in  industry,  either  as  a  consulting  technologist, 
practising  independently,  with  a  bias  towards  a 
particular  industry  or  group  of  industries,  or  as 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  an  industrial  concern, 
either  in  the  directorate,  or  the  management,  or  in 
the  control  of  a  department,  or  as  a  research  chemist 
or  as  an  analyst  ;  (3)  in  a  governmental  or  a  muni- 
cipal appointment,  in  which  the  nature  of  the  work 
may  be  general  or  specialised  and  the  duties  may 
occupy  whole  or  part  time  ;  (4)  in  teaching,  which  may 
be  general  or  specialised  in  the  case  of  University  or 
College  appointments,  but  is  usually  general  in  school 
appointments  and,  in  the  latter  case,  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  other  science  subjects  ;  or  (5)  in  a  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  of  the  branches  of  work  above 
indicated  ;  or  (6)  in  other  employment  in  which  his 
technical  knowledge  and  ability  are  advantageous, 
though  not  necessarily  the  primary  factors. 

We  propose  to  devote  special  chapters  to  public 


82        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

analysts  and  official  agricultural  analysts,  who  are 
usually  associated  with  the  first  branch  indicated,  and 
also  to  the  industrial,  governmental,  and  teaching 
branches.  For  the  present  we  will  endeavour  to  give 
some  general  hints,  dealing  first  with  private  practice. 

A  sound  knowledge  of  the  main  principles  of  their 
science  is  necessary  to  all  chemists,  yet  some  special- 
isation is  not  merely  inevitable,  but  is  likely  to 
afford  opportunity  for  successful  practice,  provided 
its  applications  are  not  too  narrow.  The  chemist  who 
acquires  a  reputation  for  a  particular  branch  of  work 
often  looks  to  a  steady  flow  of  work  in  that  branch  as 
his  mainstay. 

To  establish  a  consulting  and  analytical  practice 
without  any  immediate  clientele  requires  financial  re- 
sources and  considerable  patience.  Experience  with  a 
well-known  practitioner  for  a  year  or  two  will  usually 
be  found  advantageous,  until  the  opportunity  arises 
for  making  an  independent  beginning.  If  the  practice 
with  which  a  chemist  becomes  thus  associated  is  of  a 
special  character,  a  premium  may  be  required,  though 
a  well-trained  man  may  take  a  position  as  an  assistant 
on  reciprocal  terms — giving  his  services  for  experience 
gained — or  at  a  nominal  salary.  If  circumstances 
allow  of  it,  experience  of  this  kind  may  be  more 
valuable  than -that  afforded  by  a  subordinate  paid 
appointment.  The  fact  that  a  young  chemist  has 
worked  with  a  practitioner  of  repute  will  stand  him  in 
good  stead  in  his  subsequent  career. 

Fresh  from  an  academic  atmosphere,  he  finds  that,  in 
spite  of  his  training  and  qualifications,  his  knowledge  is, 
after  all  somewhat  superficial ;  his  subject  is  a  very  wide 
one,  and  his  training  has  not  been  so  comprehensive  as 
to  embrace  all  the  varied  problems  submitted  to  him. 
He  has  only  laid  the  foundation  for  experience, 


PROSPECTS  OF  PRACTICE  83 

The  conditions  of  working  are  different  from  those 
of  the  college  ;  he  has  to  work  much  more  rapidly  and 
probably  to  conduct  several  analyses  concurrently  and 
with  accuracy.  He  must  acquire  business  habits  and 
equip  himself  generally  for  professional  life  in  which 
there  is  much  to  learn  which  lies  outside  his  college 
training.  Take,  for  instance,  the  question  of  sampling, 
which  is  one  of  importance  to  chemists  who  undertake 
the  examination  of  coal,  ores,  cement,  fertilisers,  oils, 
and  other  substances  sold  in  large  bulk.  The  results 
of  analysis  may  affect  considerable  financial  interests, 
with  corresponding  responsibility  on  the  analyst.  Sub- 
stances are  often  dealt  in  commercially  on  the  basis  of 
the  figures  reported  by  an  analyst  agreed  upon  by  the 
parties  to  a  contract ;  or  each  such  party  may  appoint 
an  analyst,  and  agree  upon  a  third  to  arbitrate  in  the 
event  of  discrepancy  in  results,  which  may  arise  owing 
to  differences  in  sample,  or  in  the  analytical  methods 
employed.  It  is  often  advisable,  therefore,  that  the 
samples  and  the  methods  of  analysis  involved  should 
be  agreed  upon  before  examination.  The  sampler  may 
be  one  experienced  in  the  particular  trade  concerned, 
independent  of  buyer  and  seller,  or  the  analyst  him- 
self may  be  responsible  for  taking  samples.  He  should, 
in  any  case,  be  acquainted  with  the  recognised  methods 
of  sampling,  which  sometimes  entail  considerable 
knowledge.  Thus,  some  substances  vary  under  vary- 
ing conditions  of  temperature,  and  so  forth,  or  it  may 
happen  that  a  portion  drawn  from  the  top  of  a  cask 
or  drum  may  be  very  different  from  that  taken  from 
the  bottom.  Sampling  in  prospecting,  for  minerals  or 
oil,  also  requires  technical  experience.  In  the  sampling 
of  water,  too,  it  is  helpful  to  the  chemist  that  he  should 
be  fully  acquainted  with  its  source  and  general  sur- 
roundings, and  similarly  with  effluents. 


84        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Again,  the  form  of  report  to  be  adopted  in  varying 
cases  is  also  a  matter  of  importance  both  in  connection 
with  official  work  under  statutes  and  in  general  prac- 
tice. Further  reference  will  be  made"  to  certificates 
when  we  consider  matters  of  professional  procedure. 

It  might  not  occur  to  the  average  student  that  a 
knowledge  of  certain  statutes  is  sometimes  of  impor- 
tance. He  should,  for  instance,  be  informed  with 
regard  to  licences  for  stills.  Under  an  Act  entitled 
"  An  Act  to  prevent  the  Use  of  Stills  by  Unlicensed 
Persons  "  (9  and  10  Viet.,  cap.  90,  1846),  an  excise 
duty  of  los.  is  imposed  on  every  person,  not  being  a 
licensed  distiller,  rectifier,  compounder  of  spirits,  or 
vinegar-maker,  keeping  or  using  a  still  or  retort  for 
carrying  on  any  trade  or  business  requiring  the  use  of 
a  still.  The  duty  is  payable  yearly,  and  the  licence 
must  be  renewed  so  long  as  the  still  or  retort  is  kept 
or  used.  Any  infraction  of  any  of  the  provisions 
enacted  involves  liability  to  a  penalty  of  £50  and  the 
forfeiture  of  the  still,  still-head,  worm,  or  retort,  in 
respect  of  which  the  offence  is  committed. 

The  Commissioners  of  Inland  Revenue,  to  whom  is 
entrusted  the  task  of  levying  the  duty  imposed  by 
the  Act,  are  empowered,  however,  to  grant  exemptions 
from  duty  in  the  case  of  stills  kept  or  used  for  experi- 
ments in  chemistry,  or  for  the  manufacture  of  articles 
other  than  spirits  or  spirit  mixtures.  Manufacturers 
of  coal-gas  do  not  require  a  licence  for  the  use  of  the 
ordinary  retort,  and  a  still  used  for  the  distillation  of 
tar  or  tar  products  is  exempt,  provided  that  no  spirit 
mixture  is  used  or  produced  on  the  premises,  and  that 
the  name  of  the  person  keeping  the  still  is  registered 
by  the  proper  officer. 

In  consequence  of  representations  made  in  1892  by 


PROSPECTS  OF  PRACTICE  85 

the  Council  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  the  Board 
of  Inland  Revenue  allow  professors  and  teachers  of 
chemistry,  and  analytical  chemists  who  carry  on  no 
business  involving  the  manufacture  of  any  article  for 
sale  from,  or  containing  spirit,  to  use  a  still  or  stills  in 
the  bona  fide  exercise  of  their  profession  without 
taking  out  a  licence. 

What  constitutes  a  "  still  "  within  the  rrieaning  of 
the  Act  has  not  been  specifically  denned,  but  any 
apparatus  capable  of  being  used  for  the  distillation  of 
liquids  is  liable  to  licence  duty,  and,  excepting  under 
the  conditions  above  mentioned,  the  keeping  of  a 
still  without  licence  is  an  offence,  no  matter  for  what 
purpose  it  may  be  kept.  Persons  who  desire  to  obtain 
exemption  from  licence  duty  must  make  application 
to  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue  ;  such  application 
being  made  usually  through  the  local  supervisor  of 
Inland  Revenue. 

Again,  in  some  laboratories  the  recovery  of  spirit  is 
a  matter  of  much  economic  importance.  The  Board 
of  Inland  Revenue  reserve  t'o  themselves  the  right 
to  insist,  in  every  case  in  which  it  appears  to  them 
necessary  in  the  interests  of  the  Revenue,  on  a  strict 
observance  of  their  regulations,  but  have  no  desire  to 
exercise  that  right  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interfere 
unduly  with  the  ordinary  practice  of  an  analytical  and 
consulting  chemist.  The  Board,  however,  request 
that  a  formal  application  be  made  by  chemists  who 
desire  to  recover  or  purify  methylated  spirit. 

To  resume  the  consideration  of  the  conditions  of 
practice,  we  may  with  some  confidence  expect,  in  the 
future,  a  wider  outlook  in  consulting  work. 

In  some  cases,  analysis  is  becoming  a  relatively 
subsidiary  part  of  chemical  practice,  which  now 


86        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

demands  initiative  and  resource  often  of  a  very  high 
order  for  the  solution  of  the  practical  problems  with 
which  the  chemist  is  constantly  confronted. 

When  gas-lighting  was  a  novelty,  those  who  under- 
stood it  could  command  a  good  fee  for  superintending 
gas-fitting  ;  similarly,  with  the  installation  of  electric 
bells  and  later  with  electric  lighting.  With  the  progress 
of  science  these  and  many  other  advantages  of  a  scien- 
tific order  have  become  things  of  everyday  account, 
valued  less  as  they  become  more  ordinary.  Some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  principles  of  analysis  will  in  time 
be  part  of  every  boy's  education — no  more  mysterious 
than  the  fitting  of  electric  bells  to-day.  The  chemist, 
therefore,  must  be  something  more  than  an  analyst. 
If  an  assistant  has  had  experience  in  research,  he  may 
be  given  an  opportunity  of  wrorking  on  industrial 
problems,  and,  if  successful,  his  principal  may  be  able 
to  recommend  him  to  an  appointment,  perhaps  in  the 
works  of  a  client,  and  he  will  thereby  find  a  career  in 
industrial  chemistry.  If  he  has  been  with  a  public 
analyst  or  official  agricultural  analyst  he  will  have 
acquired  the  experience  necessary  for  obtaining  the 
qualifications  demanded  for  official  analytical  appoint- 
ments and  may  thus  secure  a  nucleus  for  establishing 
an  independent  practice. 

The  chemist  who  does  not  need  immediately  to  earn 
his  living  may  with  advantage  devote  himself  inde- 
pendently to  research  on  industrial  problems.  We 
have  known  this  branch  of  work  lead  to  very  profit- 
able results  from  investigations  directed  to  devising 
processes  which  have  been  patented.  The  chemist, 
however,  if  he  hopes  to  reap  the  benefit  of  this  work, 
will,  of  course,  find  the  need  for  the  assistance  of  a 
reliable  patent  agent  well  qualified  to  act  for  him  on 
chemical  matters. 


PROSPECTS  OF  PRACTICE  87 

In  chemistry,  as  in  other  professions,  there  is  always 
scope  for  the  best.  Broadly  speaking,  professional  suc- 
cess is  achieved  by  competence,  based  on  sound  general 
education,  systematic  technical  training,  and  close  ac- 
quaintance with  modern  practice,  capability — the  skill 
to  apply  knowledge  and  experience — and  individuality, 
which  comprises  trustworthiness,  tact,  energy,  en- 
thusiasm, foresight,  and  general  force  of  character.  The 
result  lies  almost  entirely  with  the  individual.  In  any 
case,  he  cannot  expect  to  command  success  without 
merit,  patience,  and  persistent  hard  work. 

The  discipline  of  the  technical  training,  the  mental 
exercise  involved  and  the  social  advantages  of  his 
college  life  all  tend  to  render  the  chemist  a  useful  man. 
Occasionally  he  will  turn  to  a  career  in  which  his 
science  is  directly  useful,  though  it  may  not  be  the 
main  part  of  his  business.  Thus,  a  few'  chemists 
have  qualified  for  the  bar,  practising  in  cases  con- 
nected with  technological  matters,  patents,  etc.  ; 
others  have  become  patent  agents,  or  educational 
inspectors,  or  mining  prospectors,  or  scientific  jour- 
nalists, or  have  secured  commercial  positions  in 
industries  on  which  chemistry  has  a  bearing.  The 
chemist  seldom,  however,  entirely  relinquishes  his 
profession  ;  change  of  career  becomes  more  difficult  as 
time  passes,  and,  in  general,  it  is  found  that  the  older 
a  man  gets  the  less  likely  is  he  to  succeed  by  making  a 
change. 

The  possession  of  means  may  enable  a  chemist  to 
purchase  an  interest  in  a  practice  or  an  industrial 
undertaking,  or  warrant  him  in  waiting  for  an  oppor- 
tunity of  securing  an  appointment  suited  to  his  in- 
clinations, whereas  his  less  fortunate  brethren  must 
perforce  take  what  they  can  get.  During  the  first 
year  of  experience — particularly  if  he  has  no  indepen- 


88        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

dent  financial  resources — he  should  carefully  consider 
whether  his  position  affords  a  prospect  of  advance- 
ment. If  not,  he  will  be  wise  to  look  to  his  own 
interests,  or  he  may  become  so  concerned  with  the 
interests  of  those  with  whom  he  is  associated  and  so 
engrossed  in  his  work  as  to  overlook  the  fact  that  he 
has  his  own  career  to  make. 

Every  man  can  strive  to  get  himself  out  of  the 
ordinary  ruck  and  do  his  best  to  attain,  if  not  a  con- 
trolling position,  at  least  one  in  which  he  can  exercise 
initiative  and  find  opportunities  for  relying  on  his  own 
resources.  If  he  does  not  have  regard  to  the  future 
and  neglects  to  improve  his  position  he  will  find  him- 
self falling  behind  and  sooner  or  later  blame  himself, 
or  more  probably  the  profession  he  has  chosen,  for  the 
fact  that  suitable  appointments  in  his  particular  branch 
are  not  offered  to  men  of  his  age  and  experience 
unless  they  have  acquired  an  exceptional  reputation. 

Complaints  that  the  profession  is  unremunerative 
are  largely  raised  by  those  who  have  neglected  to 
exert  themselves  while  they  were  still  young  and 
active.  It  serves  no  purpose  for  a  professional  man  to 
feel  aggrieved  that  he  earns  less  than  a  workman  ;  or 
that  a  man  in  trade  "  makes  "  as  much  in  a  few 
minutes  as  he  (the  professional  man)  does  in  as  many 
years.  He  may  reasonably  hope  to  leave  the  workman 
far  behind  ;  but  he  must  bestir  himself  if  he  wants  to 
get  on  in  the  world,  and  so  long  as  it  is  in  his  power  to 
effect  an  improvement  in  his  position  he  should  not 
despair.  Although  it  is  true  that  about  fourteen  per  cent 
of  the  members  of  the  Institute  were  abroad  at  the 
outbreak  of  war,  it  is  no  less  a  fact  that  difficulty  in 
placing  well-qualified  men  was  often  experienced 
because  they  would  not  venture  away  from  home,  or 
did  not  want  to  go  into  another  branch  of  work,  or 


PROSPECTS  OF  PRACTICE  89 

were  in  some  way  particular  as  to  the  disposition  of 
their  services.  Those  who  are  devoid  of  ambition  do 
not  usually  make  leaders  of  men  or  contribute  to  the 
advance  of  industries  or  the  progress  of  nations.  The 
success  of  the  profession  depends,  as  we  have  said, 
mainly  on  the  individual  effort  of  its  members.  The 
aim  of  the  individual,  therefore,  should  be  to  acquire 
knowledge,  skill,  and  experience  of  the  highest  order, 
so  that  he  may  render  himself  available  for  suitable 
opportunities  as  they  arise.1 

Opportunity  is  a  great  thing  ;  but  a  greater  is  to 
be  prepared  for  the  opportunity.  It  will  not  come  for 
the  asking,  but  will  come  more  certainly  to  anyone 
who  is  prepared  for  it .  Clever  men. make  opportunities  ; 
yet  those  who  have  risen  rarely  know  why  they  have 
done  so  ;  in  most  cases,  they  have  become  sufficiently 
appreciated  for  their  ability  and  personal  qualities  to 
be  sought  after.  Comparatively  few  professional  men 
get  rich  quickly  ;  the  majority  work  many  more  hours 
a  week  than  any  craftsman,  and  yet  few  earn  any- 
thing approaching  what  they  deserve  until  they  have 
obtained  considerable  practical  experience  ;  but  the 
chemist  has  a  chance  as  good  as,  if  not  better  than, 
many  other  professional  men  to  give  evidence  of  his 
worth  :  his  field  of  work  is  so  wide.  However,  not- 
withstanding all  that  we  have  said,  chemistry  has  not 
yet  acquired  that  recognition  which  is  its  due.  It  is 
only  by  united  effort  in  educating  public  opinion  that 
its  claims  will  be  brought  home  to  the  uninitiated. 

We  have  expressed  the  view  that  the  chemist,  in 
that  he  chooses  his  profession  deliberately  and  because 
he  likes  it,  is  to  be  envied  ;  but  he  is  to  be  pitied  if 
he  is  subsequently  confined  to  routine  work,  without 

1  "He  that  chiefly  owes  himself  unto  himself,  is  the  substantial 
man." — Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1605-82). 


90        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

opportunities  of  developing  new  ideas  or  solving  new 
problems. 

The  poor  remuneration  of  industrial  chemists  in  the 
past  has  been  due,  in  many  cases,  to  the  fact  that  their 
work  often  consists  largely  of  routine  analysis  which  can 
be  carried  out  sufficiently  well  by  youths  who  have  had 
a  short  training  in  a  limited  variety  of  analytical  pro- 
cesses and  who  are  willing  to  accept  positions  affording 
them  experience.  An  analyst  in  charge  of  a  fairly  large 
laboratory  may  occupy  a  reasonably  remunerated 
position  ;  but  for  routine  work  there  is  a  limited 
value.  The  well-trained  man  needs  to  secure  a  posi- 
tion commensurate  with  his  attainments,  which  was 
formerly  a  difficult  matter  while  the  demand  for  such 
chemists  was  small.  It  is  often  very  necessary  to 
remind  the  chemist  that  his  sphere  need  not  be  re- 
stricted to  the  operations  of  the  laboratory.  If  it 
should  be  his  ambition  to  occupy  a  controlling  position 
in  industry,  he  should  lose  no  opportunity  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  processes  on  the  manufacturing  scale  ; 
but  if  he  finds  his  outlook  restricted  to  analysis  with 
no  opportunity  for  developing  ideas  of  his  own,  and  no 
prospect  of  going  on  the  works,  he  is  well  justified  in 
seeking  another  appointment. 

There  have  been  frequent  complaints  with  regard 
to  the  payment  of  chemists  in  whole-time  official 
appointments.  Such  complaints  are  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  those  holding  chemical  appointments  :  clergy- 
men, lawyers,  medical  men,  schoolmasters,  architects, 
accountants,  engineers — in  fact,  all  classes  of  profes- 
sional men  are  at  one  time  or  another  expected  to  be- 
come candidates  for  appointments  offered  on  ridicu- 
lously low  terms  and  unsatisfactory  conditions.  In  the 
long  run  such  matters  are  adjusted  by  the  laws  of  supply 


PROSPECTS   OF   PRACTICE  91 

and  demand.  Many  considerations  may  enter  into  the 
question  whether  candidates  will  be  willing  to  apply  for 
a  position  :  the  nature  of  the  duties  and  the  responsi- 
bilities involved  ;  whether  previous  experience  is  ex- 
pected ;  what  advantages  in  the  way  of  experience  or 
prospects  are  attached  to  the  appointment ;  whether 
it  carries  a  pension  ;  whether  the  holder  is  free  to 
undertake  practice  independently  in  his  spare  time  ; 
whether  the  individual  concerned  is  so  modest  in  his 
requirements  as  to  consider  his  labour  a  hobby,  or 
perhaps  a  duty  to  the  State  and  not  merely  a  means 
to  earning  a  livelihood  ;  and  so  forth. 

Is  it  too  much  to  hope  that  no  author  of  the  future 
will  have  cause  to  write  in  the  strain  of  John  Ruskin 
in  Sesame  and  Lilies  ? 

"  I  say  we  have  despised  science.  '  What,'  you  exclaim, 
'  are  we  not  foremost  in  all  discovery,  and  is  not  the  whole 
world  giddy  by  reason,  or  unreason,  of  our  inventions  ?  ' 
Yes  ;  but  do  you  suppose  that  is  national  work  ?  That 
work  is  all  done  in  spite  of  the  nation  ;  by  private  people's 
zeal  and  money.  We  are  glad  enough,  indeed,  to  make 
our  profit  of  science  ;  we  snap  up  anything  in  the  way  of  a 
scientific  bone  that  has  meat  on  it,  eagerly  enough  ;  but  if 
the  scientific  man  comes  for  a  bone  or  a  crust  to  us,  that  is 
another  story." 

Long  after  Ruskin  wrote  that  (1864),  a  chemist 
without  previous  experience  but  with  good  qualifica- 
tions could  only  with  difficulty  obtain  an  appoint- 
ment at  all.  Frequently  a  practising  consultant  would 
take  into  his  laboratory  a  newly  qualified  man  at  a 
nominal  remuneration,  as  a  pupil-assistant,  in  order 
to  give  him  an  opportunity  of  gaining  experience.  To 
obtain  an  appointment  at  £100  a  year  was  regarded 
as  a  fairly  good  start  and  many  were  obliged  to  accept 
less.  As  the  demand  increased  or  showed  signs  of 


92         THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

gaining  on  the  supply,  the  position  was  slightly  im- 
proved. At  the  outbreak  of  war,  however,  before  the 
urgent  need  for  chemists  was  realised,  and  while  many 
were  prepared  to  make  sacrifices  to  assist  the  country, 
the  terms  of  certain  official  assistantships  were  practi- 
cally on  the  £100  a  year  basis,  with  decidedly  un- 
satisfactory conditions  attached.  Nor  was  there  any 
marked  change  until  the  demand  increased  and,  even 
then,  having  regard  to  the  rise  in  the  cost  of  living,  the 
general  position  was  not  really  much  improved.  These 
considerations,  however,  applied  mainly  to  non-special- 
ised work .  Where  highly  special  experience  was  called  for, 
fairly  reasonable  salaries  were  obtainable,  particularly 
in  new  establishments  rendered  necessary  by  the  war. 

There  is  not  and  cannot  be  "  a  minimum  wage  " 
acceptable  generally  to  men  of  such  varied  attain- 
ments ;  but  a  scale  might  be  agreed  upon,  to  be 
varied  according  to  economic  conditions,  having  regard 
to  the  education,  training,  qualifications  and  experience 
of  the  chemists,  as  well  as  the  character,  importance  and 
responsibility  of  the  work  entrusted  to  them.  With  all 
these  circumstances  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  the 
matter  becomes  complicated ;  but  the  broad  principle 
of  making  the  practice  of  chemistry  attractive  to  a  due 
proportion  of  the  possessors  of  the  best  brains  in  the 
country  should  not  be  ignored,  while  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  the  main  they  are  more  directly  product- 
ive compared  with  those  of  some  other  professions. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  matter  may  be  approached 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  employers,  who  get,  in 
the  long  run,  what  they  pay  for.  If  they  offer  a  small 
salary,  they  have  a  corresponding  selection  of  candi- 
dates to  choose  from  and  must  either  take  what  is  avail- 
able or  improve  the  terms  ;  but  if  they  are  inclined  to 
be  liberal,  they  will  get  a  good  selection  of  candidates 


PROSPECTS   OF   PRACTICE  93 

and  stand  a  better  chance  of  obtaining  results  out  of 
all  proportion  to  the  increased  expenditure  involved. 
At  the  present  time  (January,  1919)  several  companies 
employing  fairly  large  staffs  decline  to  engage  any 
chemist  at  less  than  £250  a  year  ;  others  place  the 
minimum  at  £300  a  year.  If  the  candidates  for 
vacancies  are  not  deemed  worthy  of  the  suggested 
salary,  they  are  not  engaged,  or  if  they  fall  -short  of  ex- 
pectations their  agreements  are  either  soon  terminated 
or  they  remain  in  junior  positions  ;  if  they  are  worth 
more,  a  definite  contract  is  entered  upon  for  a  term  of 
years  on  a  basis  mutually  agreed  upon.  If  manu- 
facturers generally  adopted  such  a  plan  the  chemists 
would  know  what  to  expect  and  there  would  be  -less 
cause  for  complaint.  The  figures  indicated  above  do  not 
represent  the  value  of  services  rendered  by  the  chemist, 
but  rather  the  initial  salary  the  companies  are  prepared 
to  pay  him.  When  he  has  acquired  experience  in 
their  industry  and  proved  the  value  of  his  services  his 
position  should,  of  course,  be  correspondingly  improved. 

In  industrial  positions,  the  conditions  are  likely  to 
improve  because  the  control  is  passing  gradually,  but 
surely,  to  men  of  science  ;  but  where  this  is  not  the 
case,  the  outlook  will  be  promising  from  the  chemists' 
point  of  view  only  where  the  principals  concerned 
are  properly  appreciative  of  the  importance  of  science 
and  are  able  to  judge  of  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  the  appointments  under  their  control. 

It  was  anticipated  in  some  quarters  that  after  the  war 
there  would  be  an  unprecedented  demand  for  chemists, 
and  we  hope  that  this  view  may  not  prove  to  have 
been  too  sanguine.  It  is  early,  yet,  to  judge.  Unless 
they  can  be  advantageously  employed  the  profession 
may  become  overcrowded;  but  it  is  certain  that  if 
reasonable  salaries  are  offered,  the  supply  will  be  forth- 


94        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

coming.  The  Germans  employed  more  chemists  because 
they  carried  on  industries  of  a  different  character :  the 
manufacture  of  dyes,  fine  chemicals,  pharmaceutic  and 
photographic  materials,  necessitating  expert  control  by 
numbers  of  chemists  specially  trained  for  the  work. 
In  some  cases,  their  supplies  of  natural  resources 
enabled  them  to  make  such  things  more  economically ; 
in  others,  they  worked  on  a  larger  scale ;  and  in  yet 
others,  they  secured  the  control  of  foreign  supplies 
of  starting  materials.  Germany's  export  trade  in 
chemicals  approached  £100,000,000  a  year,  whilst  ours 
was  not  more  than  a  fifth  of  that  sum.  We  hope  to 
see  a  marked  change  in  these  conditions. 

The  qualified  chemist  in  Germany  is  said  to  enjoy 
an  acknowledged  social  standing,  and  though  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he  is  better  paid  than  our  chemist 
at  the  outset,  he  is  probably  better  recompensed  in  the 
long  run,  for  results  achieved.  Before  the  war  he 
rarely  received  more  than  £100  a  year  as  a  com- 
mencing salary,  and  his  services  were  generally  secured 
by  hard-and-fast  contracts  binding  him  to  secrecy  and 
the  surrender  of  all  rights  in  any  improvements  or  dis- 
coveries of  which  he  might  become  the  author.  Yet, 
as  we  have  indicated,  the  low  salary  received  by  the 
technical  chemist  on  the  Continent  at  the  outset  of 
his  career  was  to  some  extent  compensated  for  by  the 
status  accorded  him.  The  Herr  Doktor  was  apparently 
content  to  adopt  a  modest  standard  of  living,  but  he 
was  respected  for  his  attainments ;  studious,  ambitious, 
fond  of  debate  and  prone  to  advertise  his  accomplish- 
ments, his  position  as  a  man  of  "  Kultur  "  was  under- 
stood, and  he  was  not  confounded  with  the  "apotheker." 

The    memorandum    of    the    German    Ambassador, 
Lichnowsky,  published  in  the  Politiken,  of  Stockholm, 


PROSPECTS   OF   PRACTICE  95 

telegraphed  to  this  country  by  Renter's  correspondent 
in  March,  1918,  and  later  published  under  the  title  of 
"  My  Mission  to  London,  1912,"  contained  the  follow- 
ing statement  at  the  conclusion  of  his  remarks  on 
Society  in  England :  "A  hospitable  house  with 
pleasant  hosts  is  worth  more  than  the  profoundest 
scientific  knowledge  ;  and  a  savant  with  provincial 
manners  and  small  means  would  gain  no  influence  in 
spite  of  all  his  learning/'  The  impression  of  such  a  man 
is  noteworthy,  but  it  is  only  true  in  part.  "Society" 
here  is  not  much  interested  in  science.  If  Lichnowsky 
found  his  friends  mainly  among  politicians  he  would  be 
hardly  likely  to  find  many  men  of  science  among  them. 

We  will  refer  again  to  some  of  these  matters  in  sub- 
sequent chapters. 

We  must  maintain  that  the  profession  of  chemistry 
in  all  its  branches  should  be  accorded  the  position  and 
emoluments  which  are  its  due  as  one  of  the  liberal 
professions  on  whose  knowledge  modern  civilisation 
relies  in  times  of  peace,  and  whose  power  is  indispen- 
sable in  the  time  of  war. 

Appointments  Register. 

The  Institute  of  Chemistry  maintains  a  register  of 
Fellows  and  Associates  who  are  available  for  appoint- 
ments, and  circulates  particulars  of  suitable  vacancies. 
Several  Universities  do  the  same  for  their  graduates. 
Authorities  and  firms  increasingly  look  to  the  Institute 
and  the  Universities  to  assist  them  in  securing  the 
services  of  well-trained  chemists  ;  so  that  by  this 
means  many  are  introduced  to  their  first  appointments 
or  are  enabled  to  improve  their  positions.  The  Hon- 
orary Corresponding  Secretaries,  in  Overseas  Dominions, 
assist  in  this  as  in  other  departments  of  the  work  of 
the  Institute. 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION 

NOT  only  among  labouring  men  but  also  among  pro- 
fessional men  the  value  of  some  form  of  organisa- 
tion has  long  been  recognised.  Every  profession  derives 
benefit  from  the  existence  of  a  representative  body 
established  to  define  a  standard  of  qualification  and  to 
act  in  the  interests  of  the  profession  as  a  whole.  Such 
organisations  aim  at  the  maintenance  of  the  efficiency 
and  integrity  of  their  profession  while  they  engender  a 
sense  of  fellowship  and  mutual  responsibility  among 
their  members.  Membership  should  be  sought,  there- 
fore, from  a  desire  to  assist  in  maintaining  the  prestige 
of  the  profession  generally  as  much  as  for  any  direct 
advantage  to  the  individual. 

The  earliest  records  of  professional  organisation  in 
this  country  appear  to  be  those  relating  to  the  schools 
of  Law,  which  were  in  existence  in  the  thirteenth 
century  ;  those  relating  to  medicine  dating  from  the 
fourteenth.  The  majority  of  the  other  representative 
professional  bodies — representing  architects,  engineers 
(civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical),  accountants  and 
actuaries,  chemists,  surveyors,  journalists,  patent 
agents  and  so  forth — have  come  into  existence  since 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  all  professions  there  is  a  continuous  agitation  for 
more  complete  organisation,  having  in  view  the  im- 
provement of  the  status  of  their  practitioners.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  tendency  to  specialise  inevitably  leads 

96 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION  97 

to  schisms.  Sooner  or  later  other  bodies  are  formed 
working  separately  yet  with  similar  though  more 
specialised  aims.  One  of  the  objects  of  such  bodies 
has  been  to  provide  registers  of  competent  men  for 
the  service  of  the  community,  but  none  of  these 
bodies,  except  those  relating  to  the  law,  medicine  and 
pharmacy,  has  acquired  statutory  powers  of  compul- 
sory registration  and  there  is  very  great  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  the  desirability  of  their  doing  so.  General 
rapid  advancement  has  resulted,  however,  from  pro- 
fessional bodies  aiming  at  the  encouragement  of 
efficiency  and  integrity,  for  which  purpose  the 
principal  professional  societies  and  institutions  have 
been  officially  recognised  by  incorporation  under 
Royal  Charter.  They  exist,  in  that  respect,  as  much 
for  the  public  good  as  for  their  own  advantage,  though 
they  may  establish  rights  and  privileges  of  member- 
ship and  mutual  obligations  in  the  relations  of  their 
members  to  one  another  and  to  the  community. 

In  aiming  at  the  enhancement  of  status,  there  is 
constant  agitation  for  further  organisation  in  matters 
educational,  technical,  and  ethical.  It  is  not  reason- 
able to  expect  that  these  matters  can  ever  be  definitely 
established  for  all  time  to  the  satisfaction  of  every- 
body ;  but  under  the  influence  of  these  movements, 
there  is  a  general  tendency  towards  higher  standards 
and  higher  ideals. 

As  there  are  many  men  styled  "  engineers,"  there 
are  likewise  many  styled  "  chemists."  Although  a 
large  number  start  out  on  their  professional  careers 
well  educated  and  thoroughly  trained,  others,  as  we 
have  previously  remarked,  offer  their  services  with  far 
less  qualification,  or  make  their  first  practical  acquaint- 
ance with  the  application  of  science  as  laboratory 
attendants  or  "  testers  "  engaged  in  routine  analysis 


98        THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

in  works  or  possibly  in  private  laboratories  during  the 
day,  supplementing  what  they  learn  in  this  way  by 
attending  evening  classes  at  local  Technical  Schools. 

We  have  mentioned  also  that  the  profession  com- 
prises chemists  in  practice  as  consultants,  chemists 
engaged  in  industry,  public  analysts,  agricultural 
chemists,  chemists  in  Government  service,  and  pro- 
fessors and  teachers  of  chemistry.  There  are  also 
chemical  engineers,  metallurgists,  and  other  chemical 
advisers  with  special  experience  in  one  or  more  branches 
of  technology.  Some,  again,  combine  two  or  more  of 
these  departments  of  work.  All  these  are  "  chemists/ '- 
whether  engaged  in  analysis  or  synthesis  or  in  advising 
on  the  elucidation  of  technical  problems,  perhaps  in- 
volving considerable  financial  outlay,  or  holding  ap- 
pointments as  professors  in  Universities  or  science 
masters  in  schools, — provided  they  are  properly  trained 
and  competent. 

The  status  of  chemists  differs,  but  there  should  be 
scope  for  the  humblest  assistant  to  improve  his  position, 
and,  indeed,  many  laboratory  boys  have  attained 
very  good  positions,  some  in  practice  independently, 
some  in  works,  some  in  Government  employ,  and  so 
forth. 

To  effect  the  complete  solidarity  of  men  so  diversely 
qualified  and  engaged  in  such  a  variety  of  ways  under 
one  organisation  appears  to  be  impracticable.  If  an 
attempt  were  made  to  classify  them  in  groups  according 
to  ability,  it  would  be  found  that  whereas  some  have 
general  knowledge  and  skill  of  a  high  order  but  are  not 
specially  expert  in  any  one  particular  branch,  others 
have  specialised  knowledge  of  perhaps  a  limited  sphere 
of  work  and  are  lacking  in  knowledge  of  some  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  their  science.  They  cannot 
all  be  cast  in  the  same  mould  ;  some  are  highly  skilled 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION  99 

analysts,  some  research  chemists  and  investigators, 
while  others  have  a  preference  for  control  of  plant  and 
others  for  teaching.  It  would  be  as  easy  to.  organise  all 
who  call  themselves  artists,  from  the  Royal  Academi- 
cian to  the  pavement  variety,  or  from  the  prima  donna 
to  the  street  singer. 

From  time  to  time  it  has  been  suggested  that  there 
should  be  legislative  restriction  on  the  practice  of 
chemistry.  Compulsory  registration  in  any  case  does 
not  prevent  anyone  from  giving  advice  :  it  may  pre- 
vent the  unregistered  from  recovering  fees  and  assist 
the  public  to  discern  who  are  competent.  The  char- 
tered professional  qualifying  bodies  serve  the  latter 
purpose.  We  feel,  however,  that  little  support  would 
be  given  to  any  measure  for  the  restriction  of  chemical 
practice,  except  in  matters  affecting  the  health  and 
well-being  of  the  community,  as  in  the  case  of  public 
analysts  and  official  agricultural  analysts  and  of 
chemists  engaged  in  dangerous  industries,  for  which 
special  skill  and  experience  are  requisite.  In  chemistry 
there  is  scope  for  those  who  are  competent  to  under- 
take only  routine  testing  as  well  as  for  those  who  are 
thoroughly  equipped  for  higher  analytical  and  research 
work  or  for  the  control  of  operations  in  industry  or  the 
conduct  of  professional  practice  as  consultants  and 
analysts. 

The  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed 
the  foundation  of  many  societies  and  institutions  for 
the  promotion  of  the  study  and  practical  application  of 
different  branches  of  science.  Their  continued  vigorous 
existence  is  a  proof  of  their  utility,  while  their  work 
has  undoubtedly  exercised  a  stimulating  influence  on 
the  growth  of  knowledge  during  the  same  period. 
From  small  beginnings  they  have  become  a  great 
power  by  promoting  the  efficiency  of  their  members, 


ioo      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

by  disseminating  useful  knowledge,  establishing  facts 
and  exposing  errors,  and  by  bringing  scientific  and 
practical  men  into  close  association  to  their  mutual 
advantage. 

Anyone  who  has  not  previously  had  occasion  to 
enquire  into  the  question,  is  invariably  surprised  to 
discover  the  number  of  Societies  and  Institutions 
interested  more  or  less  directly  in  the  advancement  of 
chemical  science.  TJiey  include  (i)  Bodies  aiming  at 
the  promotion  of  all  natural  science,  and  (ii)  those  con- 
cerned with  chemistry  in  particular,  either  in  its 
purely  scientific  or  in  its  professional  and  more  utili- 
tarian aspects. 

In  the  first  category,  we  have  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  the  parent  society  of  the  scientific  bodies  in 
this  country,  founded  in  1660  ;  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society,  in  1731  ;  The  (Royal)  Society  of  Arts,  in 
1754 ;  The  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society,  in  1781 ;  The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  in 
1783  ;  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  in 
1800  ;  The  Royal  Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow, 
in  1802  ;  and  The  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  in  1831. 

In  the  second  category  we  have  the  Chemical  Society 
founded  in  1841  and  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter 
in  1848  ;  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  founded  in  1877 
and  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  in  1885  ;  the 
Society  of  Chemical  Industry  founded  in  1881  and 
incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  in  1907  ;  and  the 
Society  of  Public  Analysts  and  other  Analytical 
Chemists  founded  in  1874  and  incorporated  in  1907. 
To  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  and  the  British  Associa- 
tion of  Chemists  we  have  already  referred  in  an  earlier 
chapter. 

The    Chemical    Society,    numbering    about    3450 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISAT ION         101 


members,  aims  at  the  general  advancement  of 
chemical  science,  by  the  discussion  and  publication 
of  new  discoveries  and  the  interchange  of  valuable 
information  respecting  them.  Every  Candidate  for 
the  Fellowship  is  required  to  produce  a  certificate 
signed  by  not  less  than  five  Fellows  of  the  Society,  to 
three  at  least  of  whom  he  must  be  personally  known. 
The  certificate  is  read  at  three  Ordinary  Scientific 
Meetings  of  the  Society,  and  election  is  then  decided 
by  ballot.  The  Journal,  which  is  published  on  the  last 
day  of  each  month,  includes  the  Transactions  of  the 
Society  and  Abstracts  of  papers  published  in  other 
Journals.  The  Society  also  publishes  an  Annual  Report 
on  the  Progress  of  Chemistry  containing  an  epitome  of 
the  principal  advances  which  have  been  made  during 
the  year,  and  possesses  a  good  Library  to  which  other 
societies  contribute.  (Admission  Fee,  £4.  Annual 
Subscription,  £2.  Life  Composition,  £30.) 

The  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  which  registers  over  2500  Fellows  and  Asso- 
ciates and  over  400  Students,  aims  at  the  maintenance 
of  the  status  and  efficiency  of  the  profession  of 
chemistry,  by  promoting  the  better  education  of 
persons  desiring  to  follow  that  profession  ;  by  setting 
up  a  high  standard  of  scientific  and  practical  pro- 
ficiency ;  by  the  examination  of  candidates  and  the 
registration  of  such  as  have  been  found  to  be  com- 
petent ;  and  by  insisting  upon  the  observance  of  strict 
rules  with  regard  to  professional  conduct.  The  Regula- 
tions with  regard  to  the  training  and  examinations 
required  for  the  qualifications  for  Membership — A.I.C. 
and  F.I.C. — have  already  been  reviewed  in  the  chapter 
relating  to  professional  training.  Lectures  are  given 
before  the  Institute  by  acknowledged  authorities  on 
technological  and  professional  subjects,  mainly  for  the 


102  ,  YHE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

'benefit  of  advanced  students  and  the  younger  members, 
and  are  issued  gratis  to  Fellows,  Associates,  and  Regis- 
tered Students.  An  Appointments  Register  for  the 
benefit  of  members  who  are  seeking  appointments  is 
kept  at  the  Offices  of  the  Institute.  The  Proceedings 
are  published  in  four  parts  annually,  and  contain 
particulars  of  the  work  of  the  Council  and  abstracts 
of  the  reports  of  the  Examiners,  besides  dealing  with 
matters  of  professional  interest.  Local  Sections  are 
being  formed  to  maintain  the  interest  of  members  in 
matters  of  professional  importance  and  to  promote 
social  intercourse.  Committees  are  also  formed  when 
necessary  to  represent  the  interests  of  special  branches 
of  the  profession.  In  accordance  with  the  policy 
recently  adopted  the  provisions  for  the  registration  of 
Students  will  be  extended  ;  steps  will  be  taken  towards 
closer  co-operation  between  the  work  of  the  Institute 
and  that  of  the  Universities  and  Colleges ;  the  ques- 
tion of  increasing  the  publications  of  the  Institute  will 
be  considered ;  further  endeavours  will  be  made  to 
bring  before  the  public  the  importance  of  chemistry 
to  the  country  ;  and  generally  to  forward  the  interests 
of  chemists  in  every  way  possible.  (Students,  Regis- 
tration Fee,  55.  a  year ;  Examination  Fee,  £5  55.  ; 
Fellows,  Annual  Subscription,  £2  2s. ;  Associates, 
£i  us.  6d.  ;  Entrance  Fee  to  Fellowship,  £5  55.  ;  Life 
Composition,  £26  55,  or  according  to  age.) 

The  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  numbers  about 
5000  members,  including  other  than  British  subjects. 
Its  principal  objects  are  to  advance  applied  chemistry 
and  chemical  engineering  in  all  branches  ;  to  afford 
its  members  opportunities  for  the  interchange  of  ideas 
with  respect  to  improvements  in  the  various  chemical 
industries,  and  for  the  discussion  of  all  matters  bearing 
upon  the  application  of  chemical  science  ;  and  to 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION         103 

publish  information  thereupon.  The  following  Local 
Sections  of  the  Society  have  been  formed :  Birmingham, 
Canada,  Liverpool,  London,  Manchester,  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne,  New  England,  New  York,  Nottingham,  Scotland 
(Glasgow  and  Edinburgh),  Sydney  (New  South  Wales), 
and  Yorkshire.  The  Journal  is  issued  fortnightly,  and 
contains  a  review  of  matters  of  interest  to  chemists, 
papers  read  before  the  Sectional  Meetings,  abstracts 
of  current  chemical  publications  and  of  patents,  and 
other  classified  information.  (Entrance  Fee,  £i  is.  ; 
Subscription,  £i  los.) 

The  Society  of  Public  Analysts  and  other  Analytical 
Chemists  numbers  about  450  members.  The  objects 
of  the  Society  are  to  cultivate  the  study  of  analytical 
chemistry,  by  holding  periodical  meetings  and  by  the 
publication  of  a  journal  devoted  mainly  to  analytical 
chemistry  ;  to  study  questions  relating  to  the  adultera- 
tion of  articles  of  food,  drugs,  and  commercial  pro- 
ducts generally,  and  means  for  its  detection  ;  and  to 
promote  the  efficiency  and  proper  administration  of 
the  laws  relating  to  the  repression  of  adulteration. 
Every  candidate  for  membership  must  be  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  be,  or  have  been,  engaged  in  analytical 
consulting  or  professorial  chemistry,  and  be  recom- 
mended by  at  least  four  members,  three  of  whom 
must  testify  from  personal  knowledge  to  his  scientific 
and  social  fitness.  The  recommendation  is  read  at 
two  Ordinary  Meetings  and  is  printed  in  the  notice 
convening  the  Ordinary  Meeting  at  which  election 
is  decided  by  ballot.  The  Analyst,  the  official  organ 
of  the  Society,  is  issued  monthly,  and  contains  reports 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  Society,  the  papers  read  at 
its  meetings,  abstracts,  and  information  as  to  analytical 
methods.  (Entrance  Fee,  £i  is.  ;  Subscription,  £i  is.) 

Thus,  for  practical  purposes,  chemists  have  been 


104      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

organised  to  some  extent  by  these  Societies,  each 
having  its  particular  work.  The  suggestion  has  often 
been  made  that  the  chemical  interests  of  the  nation 
should  be  further  concentrated.  A  Federal  Council  of 
Chemical  Societies  has  recently  been  constituted  for 
the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  pure  and  applied 
chemistry.  This  Council  will  take  action  to  ensure 
the  adequate  appreciation  of  the  claims  of  chemical 
science ;  consider  matters  involving  the  common  in- 
terests of  its  constituent  bodies,  and  take  appropriate 
action  in  connection  therewith  after  consultation  with 
any  bodies  concerned  or  identified  with  the  matters 
under  consideration  ;  and  consider  such  references  as  it 
may  from  time  to  t^me  receive  from  its  constituent 
bodies  or  otherwise,  and,  if  desirable,  act  thereon. 

When  the  chemist  has  passed  his  examinations  and 
secured  his  qualification  for  practice,  he  must  keep 
abreast  of  the  times — for  chemistry  is  of  all  things  a 
progressive  science.  He  must  endeavour  to  keep  pace 
with  the  progress  of  his  science  and  with  its  applica- 
tions to-day,  and  to  regard  its  possible  applications  in 
the  future  ;  and  since  he  cannot  afford  to  neglect 
opportunities  of  extending  his  knowledge  and  gaining 
experience,  he  finds  it  advisable  to  keep  in  touch  with 
his  professional  brethren,  by  joining  one  or  more  of 
the  chemical  societies.  Yet,  if  he  would  maintain 
broad  views  he  should  associate  frequently  with  those 
who  follow  other  lines  of  thought  and  exert  himself 
occasionally  out  of  his  immediate  circle. 

There  are,  in  addition,  bodies  such  as  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Institute,  the  Institute  of  Brewing,  the  Institu- 
tion of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  the  Society  of  Dyers 
and  Colourists,  the  Institute  of  Metals,  the  Concrete 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION         105 

Institute,  the  Institution  of  Petroleum  Technologists, 
and  the  like,  the  members  of  which  include  professional 
chemists  interested  in  the  industries  with  which  these 
institutions  are  concerned.  All  such  bodies  encourage 
research  and  discovery  and,  by  their  meetings  and 
publications,  assist  chemists  to  keep  in  touch  with 
modern  developments  and  progress.  If  a  chemist 
wishes  to  be  successful,  he  must  not  cease  to  be 
a  student  of  his  science  throughout  his  career. 

Such  bodies  afford  their  members  who  have  made 
practical  discoveries  facilities  for  bringing  these 
under  the  scrutiny  of  their  brethren  and  others 
likely  to  be  interested.  Some  seek  to  establish  facts, 
others  to  apply  them  to  practical  purposes.  New 
views  and  ideas  are  evolved  from  collective  reasoning 
and  debate,  and  the  subject  may  be  still  further 
advanced  by  open  criticism  and  friendly  rivalry.  The 
publication  of  research  and  invention  affords  a  chemist 
legitimate  means  of  acquiring  status  and  reputation. 
He  need  not  be  content  to  remain  always  a  spectator  ; 
if  he  is  able  to  advance  his  science,  he  deserves  well  of 
his  fellows  and  becomes  known  by  his  work.  Thus, 
the  publications  of  the  chemical  societies  contribute 
to  the  vast  storehouse  of  knowledge  and,  in  the  main, 
record  the  progress  of  chemical  science. 

In  addition  to  the  Journals  and  publications  of  the 
Societies  and  Institutions,  we  may  mention  The 
Chemical  News,  founded  by  Sir  William  Crookes  in- 
1859,  The  Chemical  Trade  Journal  and  Chemical 
Engineer,  founded  by  George  E.  Davis  in  1887  ;  both 
published  in  this  country.  Two  American  publications 
are  also  to  be  noted  :  Industrial  and  Chemical  Engineer- 
ing, published  by  the  American  Chemical  Society,  and 
Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Engineering,  published  by 
the  McGraw  Hill  Co. 


lo6      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

For  matters  of  general  scientific  interest,  Nature 
finds  many  readers  among  chemists,  and  we  suggest 
that  our  leading  engineering  and  electrical  engineer- 
ing journals  can  hardly  be  neglected  by  those  who  are 
concerned  with  the  progress  of  chemical  technology. 

Libraries,  too,  are  essential  to  the  man  who  would 
endeavour  to  keep  pace  with  his  subject.  Besides  those 
of  the  Chemical  Society  and  the  Institute  of  Chemistry, 
special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  Patent  Office 
Library,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  comprehensive 
collections  of  modern  scientific  works  of  reference. 

Although  there  is  a  need  for  more  complete  organisa- 
tion of  the  profession,  which  the  Institute  of  Chemistry 
is  actively  endeavouring  to  effect,  recent  events  have 
brought  into  prominence  the  public  utility  of  the 
various  chemical  Institutions  and  Societies,  professional 
and  social,  as  organisations  available  for  the  needs  of 
the  country  in  times  of  stress.  Their  services  in  the  war 
have  been  acknowledged  by  the  Government  and  the 
services  rendered  by  chemists  individually  have  proved 
invaluable  ;  they  have  contributed  their  share  beyond 
all  expectation  and  in  spite  of  all  difficulties  ;  so  that 
the  general  community,  in  normal  times  apathetic  to 
the  doings  of  chemists,  has  been  forcibly  reminded  of 
their  indispensability. 

Other  bodies  interested  in  chemistry  have  been 
formed  from  time  to  time,  some  for  local  purposes, 
social  and  professional,  others  with  wider  aims.  In 
recent  times,  there  have  been  movements  towards  the 
organisation  of  some  form  of  union  for  industrial 
chemists.  The  difficulty  of  dealing  with  the  rate  of 
remuneration  of  chemists  is  apparent,  for  the  limits 
of  capability  and  the  tasks  to  be  allotted  in  scientific 
work  cannot  be  determined  as  in  the  mechanical 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION         107 

crafts.  A  "  minimum  wage  "  or  "  flat  rate  "  would  tend 
to  affect  adversely  those  who  are  more  capable  and  more 
energetic  :  there  will  always  be  some,  even  among  those 
engaged  on  routine  testing,  more  capable  than  others, 
more  trustworthy,  quicker  in  their  work  and  keener  to 
make  progress  in  their  science.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine 
chemical  practice  being  subject  to  control,  as  to  time 
and  output,  on  the  lines  of  the  usual  trades  union 
system,  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether  men  who 
hope  eventually  to  attain  positions  of  responsibility 
in  their  profession  would  for  long  be  content  to  submit 
to  any  system  tending  to  restrict  initiative  and  am- 
bition. The  chemist  who  really  cares  about  his  science 
is  not  likely  to  leave  an  experiment  for  the  reason 
that  he  has  completed  so  many  hours  to  the  day  ; 
though,  of  course,  there  should  be  mutual  under- 
standing— some  idea  of  "  give  and  take  " — between 
him  and  his  principals.  An  educated  and  properly 
trained  man  should  be  able  to  establish  his  claim  to 
the  proper  recognition  of  his  services :  reasonable 
employers  are  not  likely  to  overlook  men  of  decided 
promise,  and  the  latter  are  usually  able  to  secure 
positions  elsewhere  if  they  find  that  their  services  are 
not  fully  appreciated. 

We  have  indicated  that  there  is  a  demand  in  certain 
quarters  for  some  form  of  organisation  to  represent  the 
"  economic  interests  "  of  industrial  chemists,  but  in 
any  case,  the  need  will  remain  for  an  organisation  to 
promote  the  highest  standard  of  competence  and  in- 
tegrity among  qualified  men  of  science  who  pursue 
chemistry  as  a  career.  It  is  the  individual,  the  leader, 
the  man  of  character  and  initiative  in  thought  and 
action,  who  makes  for  progress,  not  only  for  himself 
but  for  everybody,  and  it  is  all  the  more  essential, 
therefore,  that  high  aims  should  be  encouraged  in  order 


io8      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

that  as  many  as  possible  may  approach  the  attain- 
ment of  strong  individuality. 

We  incline  to  the  view,  foreshadowed  in  the  previous 
chapter,  that  the  varied  nature  of  chemical  practice 
and  the  different  degrees  of  competency  which  can  find 
employment  in  it  make  the  idea  of  a  "  trade  union  ""  in 
the  ordinary  sense  practically  unworkable.  We  regard 
chemistry  as  a  profession  in  which  the  practitioners 
must  rely  for  success  mainly  on  their  individual 
capacity,  skill,  and  force  of  character.  Those  who 
occupy  whole-tune  positions  will  be  successful  only  by 
proving  their  worth  and  by  showing  themselves  able 
and  willing  to  co-operate-  to  the  full  in  the  progress  of 
the  concerns  to  which  they  are  attached. 

A  general  strike  among  chemists  would  be  a  calamity 
— a  greater  calamity  than  many  imagine  ;  but  it  is 
hardly  feasible  while  the  majority  of  well- qualified 
chemists  are  not  dissatisfied.  Yet  it  is  quite  possible 
for  chemists  to  learn  how  their  brethren  are  treated 
in  various  concerns.  A  company  may  be  known  by 
the  chemists  it  keeps. 

The  founders  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  had  no 
trade  union  idea  in  view.  They  hoped  by  promoting 
thorough  education  and  training  to  provide  a  body  of 
men — competent  in  their  respective  branches  of 
chemical  work — to  whom  the  public  could  look  with 
confidence  for  help  in  all  matters  on  which  chemical 
science  has  a  bearing.  An  organisation  composed  of 
such  varied  members — including  chemical  consultants 
and  analysts  in  general  or  specialised  practice,  chemists 
in  governmental  or  other  official  appointments,  chemists 
in  industries,  as  directors,  owners,  or  as  analysts,  re- 
search chemists  or  control  chemists,  professors  and 
teachers — can  hardly  adopt  the  functions  of  a  "  trades 
union  "  in  the  generally  accepted  meaning  of  the  term.  It 


PROFESSIONAL  ORGANISATION         109 

does,  however,  endeavour  to  safeguard  their  general 
welfare,  by  aiming  at  high  ideals,  encouraging 
the  highest  training,  organising  the  competent  for 
the  good  of  the  community,  and  supporting  the  pro- 
fession in  all  public  affairs  affecting  its  interests. 
These  objects  have  been  consistently  pursued.  The 
Institute,  moreover,  has  maintained  among  its  Fellows 
and  Associates  a  high  standard  of  professional  integrity. 
Its  Regulations  are  wide  and  interpreted  so  that  any 
chemist  who  has  been  properly  trained  for  his  profes- 
sion can  become  associated  with  its  work.  They 
supply  a  definition  of  "  a  chemist  "  formed  by  repre- 
sentatives of  all  branches,  men  of  experience  and 
acknowledged  repute.  The  Institute  provides,  there- 
fore, a  register  of  chemists  conforming  to  that 
definition. 

The  qualifications  of  Fellowship  (F.I.C.)  and  Asso- 
ciateship  (A.I.C.)  are  officially  recognised  by  Govern- 
ment Departments  and  other  authorities  in  connection 
with  chemical  appointments  at  home  and  in  overseas 
dominions.  The  aid  of  the  Institute  is  always  avail- 
able to  chemists  :  many  who  have  not  taken  steps  to 
join  it,  have  benefited  directly  or  indirectly  by  its 
existence  ;  especially  during  the  war,  assistance  was 
rendered  without  stint  to  all  comers,  and  such  help  was 
sought  far  more  frequently  by  those  who  were  not 
previously  associated  with  the  Institute  than  by  the 
Fellows  and  Associates. 

By  the  formation  of  local  sections  it  is  hoped  that 
the  senior  members  of  the  profession  will  become  better 
acquainted  with  the  aspirations  of  their  younger 
brethren,  and  will  thus  be  better  able  to  further  them, 
while  the  activities  of  the  sections  will  tend  to  make 
the  work  of  the  profession  generally  better  known 
and  appreciated. 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  AND  OFFICIAL 
AGRICULTURAL  ANALYSTS 

AMONG  the  officials  in  the  courts  of  princes  in 
mediaeval  times,  not  the  least  important  were 
the  tasters,  whose  duty  it  was  to  ensure  that  no  poison 
or  other  injurious  matter  was  introduced  into  the  food 
of  their  lords.  In  like  manner,  ale-tasters  or  ale- 
conners were  appointed  by  municipal  bodies,  to  look 
to  the  goodness  of  ale  and  to  inspect  the  measures 
used  in  public-houses.  The  liverymen  of  the  City  of 
London,  in  Common  Hall,  on  Midsummer's  Day  each 
year,  appointed  such  an  officer ;  and  history  relates 
that  Shakespeare's  father  held  the  post  at  Stratford- 
on-Avon.  It  is  said  that  one  of  the  methods  of  tasting 
— or  rather  testing — employed  was  to  pour  some  ale 
on  a  Windsor  chair  in  which  the  officer,  garbed  in 
buckskin  breeches,  seated  himself  :  when  the  breeches 
adhered  firmly,  it  was  supposed  that  sugar  had  been 
added. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  authority  given 
to  physicians  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  examine 
the  preparations  of  apothecaries  and  druggists,  and 
we  may  refer  those  who  are  interested  in  the  early 
history  of  adulteration  to  an  essay  on  the  subject  in 
Dr.  Wynter  Blyth's  book  on  Foods :  Their  Composition 
and  Analysis. 

With  the  progress  of  time,  the  testing  of  foods  and 
drugs  has  become  an  important  branch  of  chemical 

no 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  in 

science  and  practice,  affecting  intimately  the  welfare 
of  the  public  both  in  health  and  pocket. 

The  first  volume  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
of  Public  Analysts,  published  in  1876,  contains  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  that  Society  and  indicates 
how  the  investigations  of  Dr.  Hassall  and  other 
chemists  were  instrumental  in  directing  the  attention 
of  Parliament,  in  1860,  to  the  question  of  checking 
adulteration  of  food.  Legislation  was  demanded  for  the 
protection  of  the  consumer  without  placing  unfair 
restrictions  on  the  producer.  The  first  Adulteration 
Act,  passed  in  that  year,  was  practically  inoperative  ; 
and  the  second,  passed  in  1872,  though  an  improve- 
ment on  the  first,  was  not  satisfactory  in  administra- 
tion. That  it  was  only  partially  enforced  was  largely 
due  to  the  scarcity  of  analysts  available  for  carrying 
out  its  provisions,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  it  had  been 
drawn  in  such  a  manner  as  to  perplex  magistrates, 
whose  decisions  on  the  prosecutions  coming  before 
them  were  frequently  at  variance. 

The  introduction  of  these  Acts  appeared  to  the 
traders  at  the  time  as  a  vexatious  interference  with  their 
liberties  ;  but  it  was  in  reality  contributory  to  their 
well-being,  in  that  such  legislation  protected  honest 
vendors  from  nefarious  competition,  apart  from  the 
more  important  consideration  of  the  public  benefit. 
This  form  of  legislation,  however,  was  greatly  resented 
by  tradesmen,  and  the  general  public  appeared  to  be 
then  much  in  sympathy  with  their  grievances.  The 
defects  in  the  Act  of  1872  soon  came  into  prominence 
and,  two  years  later,  a  Select  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  was  appointed  to  enquire  into  the  work- 
ing of  the  measure,  with  a  view  to  its  amendment. 
Numerous  witnesses  were  examined  and  a  Report 
with  the  detailed  evidence  was  published  as  a  Blue 


H2      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Book,  which  in  addition  to  suggesting  the  probability 
of  further  legislation,  impressed  the  Public  Analysts 
then  in  office  with  the  desirability  of  forming  an 
Association.  The  foundation  of  the  Society  of  Public 
Analysts  was  decided  upon  at  a  Meeting  held  on  the 
7th  of  August,  1874,  and  at  the  first  general  meeting, 
held  four  months  later,  the  Society  arrived  at  a 
definition  of  "an  adulterated  article  "  and,  at  the 
same  time,  elected  a  Council.  Membership  of  the 
Society  was  at  first  open  to  "  all  analytical  chemists, 
but  no  others/'  Meetings  were  arranged  at  which 
papers  were  read  and  discussed,  the  early  proceedings 
being  published  in  the  Chemical  News,  by  arrange- 
ment with  Mr. — now  Sir — William  Crookes,  and  later 
in  the  form  of  the  volume  referred  to,  which  also 
contains  notes  on  adulteration  cases.  From  that  time 
the  Society  has  carefully  watched  the  introduction  of 
fresh  legislation,  and  has  encouraged  amongst  its 
members  the  mutual  interchange  of  opinions  on  methods 
of  analysis  and  the  interpretation  of  results,  particu- 
larly in  connection  with  the  examination  of  articles  of 
food  and  drink. 

After  the  new  Bill  had  been  printed  and  circulated, 
the  Society  devoted  itself  to  securing  the  modification 
or  removal  of  objectionable  clauses,  its  suggestions 
being  considered  while  the  Bill  was  in  Committee. 
The  Society  received  support  from  the  public  and  the 
Press,  put  itself  in  communication  with  the  Local 
Government  Board  and  forwarded  a  sehedule  of  sug- 
gested amendments,  which,  with  few  exceptions,  the 
President  of  the  Board  readily  approved  ;  so  that  the 
Bill  was  much  improved  before  proceeding  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  Considerable  support  was  also  obtained  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  notably  due  to  a  speech  de- 
livered on  the  second  reading  of  the  Bill,  by  Dr.  Lyon 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  113 

— later  Lord — Playfair  ;  but  opposing  influences  were 
also  exercised  and  the  Society  was  then  confronted 
with  criticism,  both  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  in 
the  Press,  especially  with  regard  to  the  competence 
and  integrity  of  public  analysts.  The  reference  of 
disputed  analyses  to  "  Somerset  House  "  Laboratory, 
at  that  time  a  department  of  the  Board  of  Inland 
Revenue,  was  regarded  as  an  injustice  to  analysts  of 
standing,  and,  when  it  was  suggested  that  "  Somerset 
House "  decisions  should  be  considered  final,  the 
Society  entered  a  strong  protest,  recommending  that, 
in  cases  of  prosecution,  whoever  made  an  examination 
of  a  reference  sample  should  be  required  to  testify  to 
his  analysis  on  oath,  since  the  reputation  of  a  public 
analyst  might  otherwise  be  at  the  mercy  of  a  Govern- 
ment subordinate  who  might  be  of  no  greater  com- 
petence. It  was  ascertained  subsequently  that  the 
intention  of  the  Government  was  to  make  both 
equally  liable  to  give  the  figures  of  analysis  on  oath 
and  to  be  subject  to  cross-examination.  The  Press 
commented  on  differences  in  analytical  results,  almost 
invariably  casting  discredit  on  the  public  analysts 
concerned,  though  in  some  cases  samples  taken  under 
the  Act  were  known  to  have  been  deliberately  tam- 
pered with.  The  Society,  therefore,  gave  careful  con- 
sideration to  the  methods  of  taking,  dividing  and 
sealing  samples,  and  its  recommendations  on  this  part 
of  the  Bill  were  subsequently  incorporated  in  the  Act. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  through  the  intervention 
of  the  Society,  the  Bill  in  its  later  stages  was  so  entirely 
different  from  the  original  as  to  render  it  practically  a 
new  Bill ;  and  although  when  the  Act  was  eventually 
passed  it  contained  provisions  of  which  the  Society 
did  not  approve  entirely,  it  could  not  on  the  whole  be 
regarded  as  a  bad  compromise,  and  was  a  much  more 

I 


H4    "THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

satisfactory  and  comprehensive  measure  than  either 
of  those  it  repealed. 

The  subsequent  working  of  the  Act  showed  that 
some  of  the  objections  raised  by  the  Society  were  not 
altogether  well  founded.  For  instance,  in  the  matter 
of  taking  samples,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  sug- 
gestion that  collusion  was  likely  to  occur  between  un- 
scrupulous vendors  and  inspectors,  which  has  only 
rarely  been  found  to  exist  in  practice  and,  again,  the 
system  of  referring  samples  to  "  Somerset  House  " 
(now  the  Government  Laboratories)  in  cases  of  dispute 
has  not  proved  an  unsatisfactory  arrangement  or  re- 
vealed a  great  amount  of  discrepancy  in  results. 

In  practice  the  public  analyst  sees  only  one-third 
of  the  official  sample,  and  it  is,  therefore,  not  unlikely 
in  the  case  of  certain  substances,  such  as  lard,  butter, 
etc.,  that  the  sample  may  not  have  been  uniformly 
mixed.  This  condition  of  affairs  has  naturally  led  to 
cases  in  which  the  results  of  analysis  differed. 

The  relations  between  Public  Analysts  and  the 
Government  Laboratory,  in  the  early  days  somewhat 
strained,  are  now  reciprocally  cordial ;  the  Society 
and  the  Laboratory  co-operate  in  the  interests  of  the 
public,  the  differences  which  arise  being  more  commonly 
differences  in  interpretation  than  in  actual  results  ;  in 
the  latter  instances,  some  satisfactory  explanation  is 
usually  forthcoming.  Such  relations  are  ensured  so 
long  as  a  high  standard  of  training  and  qualification  is 
insisted  upon  on  the  part  both  of  the  chemists  of  the 
Government  Laboratory  and  the  Public  Analysts,  and 
provided  there  continues  to  be  a  mutual  interchange  of 
opinion  on  methods  of  analysis  and  like  matters, 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  115 

Prior  to  the  passing  of  the  1875  Act,  the  appoint- 
ment of  public  analysts  by  local  authorities  was  per- 
missive and  not  compulsory,  except  at  the  request  of 
the  Local  Government  Board.  The  local  authorities 
in  many  cases  had  ignored  the  earlier  Acts  :  twenty- 
seven  counties  neglected  to  appoint  public  analysts, 
and  these  .only  gradually  fell  into  line  under  the 
encouragement  of  the  Local  Government  Board. 
Where  the  Acts  were  not  enforced,  adulteration  was 
far  more  prevalent  :  of  the  samples  taken  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  the  percentage  of  adulterated 
varied  from  seven  to  forty-eight ;  yet  wholesale 
traders  indignantly  denied  the  prevalence  of  adultera- 
tion, though  they  protested  strongly  against  giving 
warranties  of  purity  or  guaranteeing  retailers  against 
loss  incurred  by  prosecutions  under  the  Acts. 

When  the  Adulteration  Acts  were  first  enforced,  the 
number  of  competent  analysts  available  was  very 
limited,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  standard  of  qualifica- 
tion a  number  of  appointments  were  made  which  had 
subsequently  to  be  revoked.  Some  who  might  reason- 
ably have  claimed  to  be  -analysts  had  no  special 
experience  of  the  new  work  they  were  called  upon  to 
do.  In  a  few  instances,  medical  men,  with  practically 
no  knowledge  of  analytical  chemistry,  were  appointed 
and  some  of  them  endeavoured  to  sub-let  their  analy- 
tical work ;  where  incompetent  men  were  entrusted 
with  the  duties,  the  reputation  of  the  profession  was 
considerably  damaged,  owing  to  their  mistakes.  How- 
ever, in  the  course  of  time  they  were  removed  and, 
thus,  the  few  who  were  recognised  as  competent 
received  further  appointments. 

Under  the  stress  of  competition  in  trade  and  with 
the  gradually  increasing  restrictions  on  adulteration, 
the  artifices  adopted  to  evade  the  law  became  more 


n6      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

subtle.  To  combat  such  sophistication  the  necessity 
arose  for  more  definite  evidence  of  competency  on  the 
part  of  candidates  for  appointment  as  public  analysts. 
Up  to  that  time,  no  definite  endeavour  had  been  made 
to  organise  the  profession  of  chemistry.  The  need  for 
some  authority  to  test  the  .competency  of  those  who 
wished  to  practise  the  profession  in  this  branch  was 
one  of  the  main  considerations  leading  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry. 

By  the  appointment  of  public  analysts,  chemistry 
— as  distinct  from  pharmacy — became  an  organised 
branch  of  public  service,  and  by  its  practical  applica- 
tions became  more  and  more  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  community.  Candidates  for  appointment 
were  required  to  possess  "  competent  knowledge,  skill, 
and  experience,"  and  the  Local  Government  Boards,  to 
whom  such  appointments  were  referred  for  approval 
and  confirmation,  were  empowered,  before  giving  such 
approval,  to  require  the  production  of  satisfactory 
proof  of  competency. 

The  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on 
Food  Products  Adulteration  (1894)  reported  that  the 
method  of  testing  the  qualifications  of  candidates  was 
not  wholly  successful  and  suggested  that  the  production 
of  a  recognised  diploma  or  certificate  should  be  re- 
quired. The  Council  of  the  Institute,  therefore, 
established  a  special  examination  in  the  Chemistry  of 
Food  and  Drugs,  which  was  duly  approved  by  the 
LocaJ  Government  Boards  as  qualifying  candidates 
for  these  appointments,  with  the  result  that  the  public 
analysts  to-day  form  a  body  of  highly  skilled  and 
competent  chemists  who  have  rendered  excellent 
service  to  the  community  and  have  in  no  small  degree 
advanced  the  science  and  practice  of  analytical 
chemistry. 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  117 

It  was  anticipated  that  Public  Analysts  would  receive 
many  samples  for  analysis  (under  the  Act)  from  private 
persons,  but  this  has  not  proved  to  be  the  case.  The 
mention  in  the  Act  of  a  fee  of  ten  shillings  and  sixpence  for 
the  examination  of  such  samples  is  greatly  to  be  deplored, 
since  that  sum  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  standard. 
Many  investigations  cannot  be  conducted  at  such  a  fee 
by  any  professional  chemist  making  a  reasonable 
charge  on  his  time,  leaving  out  of  the  question  the  cost 
of  his  training,  the  upkeep  of  his  laboratory  and  the 
value  of  his  experience  and  opinion.  The  public 
analyst  is  in  most  cases  obliged  to  regard  his  appoint- 
ment as  a  whole,  accepting  an  average  fee  for  samples 
of  all  kinds  ;  otherwise,  if  the  samples  submitted  in- 
cluded a  preponderance  of  those  requiring  difficult  and . 
complex  analysis,  he  could  not  hold  appointment  at 
the  fees  now  commonly  paid.  For  this  reason,  it  is  well 
that  water  was  not  included  in  the  Act,  though  Public 
Analysts  are  usually  entrusted  with  its  analysis. 
It  is  the  general  opinion — certainly  of  many  public 
analysts  who  maintain  laboratories  in  the  city  of 
London — that  an  average  fee  of  ten  shillings  and  six- 
pence leaves  no  margin  of  profit  when  all  working 
expenses  have  been  taken  into  account.  The  appoint- 
ments have  been  held  in  many  cases  mainly  to  form  a 
nucleus  for  practice  and  possibly  to  attract  to  the 
holders  a  proportion  of  the  private  consulting  work, 
not  necessarily  connected  with  food  and  drugs,  arising 
from  the  industry  and  commerce  of  the  county  or 
borough  for  which  the  public  analyst  is  appointed. 
The  adulteration  acts  have  been  considerably  ex- 
tended during  the  past  forty  years,  and  many  regula- 
tions have  been  introduced  tending  to  increase  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  these  important  public 
officers.  Moreover,  the  public  analysts  themselves 


n8      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

have  so  much  advanced  the  science  of  their  branch  of 
work  as  to  render  it  often  necessary  for  them  to  con- 
duct— with  increased  expense  of  time  and  money — a 
far  more  exhaustive  examination  of  the  articles  sub- 
mitted to  them  than  was  formerly  regarded  as  suffi- 
cient or  even  possible  until -new  methods  had  been 
devised. 

These  matters,  however,  are  little  understood  by  the 
local  authorities,  who  in  many  cases  do  not  appreciate 
the  nature  and  value  of  the  service  of  the  analyst,  and 
have  too  frequently  shown  a  tendency  to  reduce  rather 
than  increase  the  fees  allowed  for  analyses,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  expenses  of  living  have  advanced  and 
'the  remuneration,  of  other  citizens  in  practically  every 
walk  of  life  has  steadily  risen.  Apathy  and  lack  of 
appreciation  will  tend  in  the  course  of  time  to  counter- 
act the  desire  of  trained  chemists  to  undertake  public 
work  of  this  character,  except  as  whole-time  officers 
working  under  authorities  bearing  all  the  expenses  of 
laboratory  maintenance. 

The  Local  Government  Boards,  who  are  charged 
with  the  control  of  the  administration  of  the  Acts, 
persistently  decline  to  intervene  in  the  question  of 
remuneration,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  anything  short 
of  an  Act  of  Parliament  stipulating  a  definite  and 
adequate  fee  will  put  the  matter  on  a  proper  basis. 

Apparently  some  members  of  the  profession,  fully 
qualified  to  do  the  work,  have  reasons  of  their  own  for 
accepting  less  than  the  usual  fees.  Probably,  in  some 
cases,  their  establishment  expenses  are  not  so  great 
and  their  laboratories  are  in  localities  where  rents  are 
low,  or  it  may  be  that  the  bulk  of  the  samples  taken 
require  only  analyses  of  a  simple  character.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  in  cases  where 
the  fees  are  exceptionally  low  the  public  analyst  cannot 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  119 

be  expected  to  carry  out  his  investigations  with  the 
same  thoroughness  :  a  state  of  affairs  which  is  hardly 
in  the  best  interests  of  the  community. 

When  public  analytical  appointments  have  been 
offered  at  inadequate  salaries,  the  Councils  of  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  and  Society  of  Public  Analysts 
have  advised  chemists  to  refrain  from  becoming 
candidates  for  them.  Similar  action  in  relation  to 
other  professional  appointments  and  Work  has  been 
taken  by  the  British  Medical  Association,  the  Royal 
Institute  of  British  Architects  and  other  bodies,  but, 
when  such  advice  is  disregarded,  it  does  not  appear  that 
its  acceptance  can  be  legally  enforced. 

The  Institute  of  Chemistry  has  endeavoured  to 
fulfil  the  duty  imposed  by  its  Charter  of  providing  the 
community  with  a  body  of  highly  competent  chemists 
for  the  public  service,  and  has  provided  the  State  with 
the  recognised  means  of  ascertaining  those  who  are 
qualified  for  these  appointments.  It  has  a  right  to 
expect  in  return  that  the  public  should  recognise  that 
the  services  of  highly  trained  and  qualified  professional 
men  should  be  rewarded  consistently  with  the  nature 
of  their  work  and  the  responsibility  of  the  public 
duties  with  which  they  are  entrusted.  The  aim  of  the 
administration  should  be  to  secure  efficient  service. 
The  remuneration  and  conditions  of  these  public 
appointments  should,  therefore,  be  such  as  will  pro- 
mote efficiency  with  integrity. 

The  question  has  been  frequently  debated  as  to 
whether  the  object  of  the  legislation  for  the  suppression 
of  adulteration  is  directed  to  the  punishment  of  fraud 
or  the  maintenance  of  the  public  health.  Whereas  it 
was  stated  in  the  preamble  to  the  Act  of  1872  that  "  the 
practice  of  adulterating  articles  of  food  and  drink  for 
sale  in  fraud  of  Her  Majesty's  subjects,  and  to  the 


120      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

great  hurt  of  their  health  and  danger  of  their  lives, 
requires  to  be  repressed/'  and  the  preamble  to  the 
1860  Act  was  very  similar,  the  Act  of  1875  merely 
stated  that  it  was  desirable  that  those  Acts  should  be 
repealed  and  the  law  requiring  the  sale  of  food  and 
drugs  in  a  pure  and  genuine  condition  should  be 
amended.  Thus  the  preamble  of  the  Act  of  1875 
ignored  equally  the  explicit  statement  of  "  fraud  " 
and  "  health  "  reasons  and  may,  therefore,  be  held  to 
have  included  both. 

In  France,  a  similar  statute  is  regarded  as  mainly 
directed  against  fraud,  but  it  includes  provisions  in  the 
interests  of  health  ;  in  Belgium,  legislation  is  directed 
against  adulteration  with  noxious  substances ;  in 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,  the  chief  object  of 
legislation  in  these  matters  appears  to  be  to  prevent 
the  sale  of  unsound  or  injurious  food,  providing  penalties 
for  fraud  and  ignorance,  carelessness,  or  negligence  in 
manufacture.  In  Germany,  however,  the  restrictions 
do  not  apply  to  substances  intended  for  export. 

Since  profit  is  commonly  the  object  of  adultera- 
tion, the  question  of  fraud  should  certainly  weigh  in 
the  judgment  of  such  matters  ;  the  penalties  imposed 
should  be  a  real  check  to  the  fraudulent  trader. 

In  the  early  days  of  this  legislation  local  authori- 
ties occasionally  appointed  their  Medical  Officers 
of  Health  as  Public  Analysts.  While  there  were 
insufficient  professional  chemists  for  the  work  there 
was  little  enough  justification  for  this  procedure, 
except  where  the  medical  officer  was  competent  to 
undertake  the  work — which  was  very  rarely  the  case. 
It  is  a  false  notion  that  medical  men  generally  and  as 
very  few  possess  a  competent  knowledge  of  chemistry 
such  are  capable  of  controlling  chemical  laboratories ; 
in  any  of  its  branches  ;  the  two  officers  are  drawn  from 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  121 

two  distinct  professions  :  their  duties  are  distinct  in 
their  nature  and  require  an  entirely  different  training. 
The  smattering  of  chemistry  required  in  the  ordinary 
medical  curriculum  and  for  the  Diploma  in  Public  Health 
is  totally  inadequate  for  the  practice  of  chemistry. 

Under  the  Act  of  1875,  provision  is  made  for  the 
taking  of  samples  by  Medical  Officers  of  Health, 
sanitary  inspectors  and  police,  so  that  local  authori- 
ties have  commonly  entrusted  this  duty  to  the  medical 
officers  ;  but  since  the  Act  declares  that  those  who 
take  the  samples  are  to  submit  them  to  the  public 
analyst  if  they  suspect  the  same  to  have  been  sold  con- 
trary to  the  Act,  it  is  clearly  not  the  intention  that 
such  officers  should  also  act  as  public  analysts. 

Moreover,  there  is  no  indication  that  it  was  in- 
tended to  place  the  public  analyst  in  a  position  in  any 
way  inferior  to  that  of  the  medical  officer  of  health 
and  the  latter  is  not  specifically  required  by  any 
statute  to  take  any  further  part  in  the  administration 
of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  and  though  he 
may  be  required  by  other  statutes  to  report  on  domestic 
water  supplies  and  on  tuberculous  milk  he  will  usually 
refer  such  matter  to  a  qualified  chemist. 

The  most  ingenious  defences  are  devised  to  evade 
the  penalties  of  the  law  on  purely  technical  grounds. 
One  of  the  chief  of  these  is  in  connection  with  Section  25 
of  the  Act,  under  which  the  defendant  retailer  may 
rely  on  a  written  warranty  received  at  the  time  he 
purchased  the  substance,  to  relieve  him  of  the  respon- 
sibilities which  he  may  incur  if  it  should  be  sold  contrary 
to  the  Acts. 

In  the  Act  of  1875,  food  was  defined  as  every  article 
used  for  food  or  drink  by  man  other  than  drugs  or 
water  ;  but  it  is  significant  that  the  word  adulteration 
was  not  defined. 


122      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

The  Public  Analyst  must  be  acquainted  with  the 
statutes  under  which  he  performs  his  duties,  but  is  in 
no  sense  a  Public  Prosecutor.  He  has  to  examine  to 
the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  ability  any  sample  of 
food  or  drug  submitted  to  him  and  to  report  whether 
or  not  it  is  of  the  nature,  substance,  and  quality 
demanded.  He  is  required  to  state  his  opinion  on  the 
genuineness  of  the  sample  and  to  specify  the  per- 
centages of  any  foreign  ingredient  present.  In  the 
case  of  drugs,  the  courts  have  construed  adulteration 
as  "  impurity  "  if  the  sample  has  been  sold  in  such  a 
state  "  as  to  affect  injuriously  the  quality  or  potency  of 
such  drug." 

It  was  at  one  time  not  infrequently  advanced  by  the 
defence  in  cases  of  prosecution  that  the  public  pre- 
ferred certain  admixtures  in  articles  which  come  within 
the  meaning  of  the  Acts.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
public  might  show  a  preference  with  regard  to  the 
colour  of  a  substance — such  as  butter  or  milk — and 
the  dealer  would  endeavour  by  the  use  of  colour- 
ing matters — such  as  annatto — to  meet  this  fancy. 

A  number  of  articles  such  as  cheese,  whiskey,  and 
brandy  appear  to  need  definition.  The  employment 
of  brandy  and  whiskey  as  alcoholic  stimulants  in 
medicine  illustrates  the  importance  of  the  question. 
The  discretion  of  the  analyst  must  be  used  to  decide 
how  far  the  purchaser  has  obtained  what  he  had  a  right 
to  expect,  which  in  the  absence  of  standard  is  often 
difficult  to  determine. 

In  1905,  the  Local  Government  Board  for  England 
and  Wales  established  the  Department  of  Inspector 
of  Foods,  the  staff  including  both  medical  men  and 
chemists,  whose  duties  have  embraced  scientific 
investigation,  reports  on  which  have  been  published 
from  time  to  time. 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  123 

The  Department  has  been  largely  instrumental  in 
preventing  the  importation  of  diseased  meat  in 
various  forms,  of  unwholesome  canned  foods  and 
of  other  unsound  articles  of  food  and  drink  for  human 
consumption.  The  Department  has  advocated  the 
dating  of  tinned  foods,  and  the  careful  examination 
of  any  that  have  been  tinned  for  more  than  a  year  ;  it 
has  recommended  that  the  presence  of  two 'grains  of 
tin  to  the  pound  should  be  accepted  as  an  indication 
that  the  food  is  likely  to  be  deleterious  to  health. 

Under  Section  i  of  the  Public  Health  (Regulations 
as  to  Food)  Act,  1907,  the  Local  Government  Board  is 
empowered,  moreover,  to  make  regulations  authorising 
measures  to  be  taken  for  the  prevention  of  danger 
arising  to  the  public  health  from  the  importation, 
preparation,  storage,  and  distribution  of  articles  of 
food  intended  for  sale  for  human  consumption.  The 
Board  has  framed  many  such  regulations  and  has 
issued  numerous  circulars  of  instructions  to  local 
authorities. 

The  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board,  with  regard  to  the 
working  of  the  Acts,  have  shown  that  special  attention 
has  been  paid  to  dairy  products,  the  prevalence  of 
adulteration  indicating  that  the  penalties  imposed 
have  been  usually  too  lenient.  A  supply  of  pure  milk 
is  essential  owing  to  its  importance  as  an  article  of 
food,  particularly  for  infants  and  invalids.  On  account 
of  the  varying  quality  of  milk  under  different  con- 
ditions, there  has  been  a  laxity  in  adjudicating  cases 
with  strict  regard  to  the  standards  prescribed.  The 
prevention  of  tuberculosis  being  one  of  the  main 
objects,  the  public  analyst  has  been  obliged  to  give 
attention  to  the  study  and  practice  of  bacteriology. 
Greater  attention  is  now  given  to  the  cleanliness  of 
cows,  sheds,  utensils,  and  milkers  ;  and  greater  pre- 


124      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

cautions  are  taken  against  contamination  by  dust  in 
transit,  in  shops  and  in  the  houses  of  the  consumers, 
but  much  remains  to  be  done  to  ensure  a  wholesome 
supply  of  a  substance  so  liable  to  contamination. 

One  disadvantage  of  fixing  standards  is  that  the 
fraudulent  trader  is  enabled  to  lower  the  quality  of 
produce  to  the  limit  at  which  prosecution  may  be 
avoided.  Thus,  the  resources  of  science  can  be  applied 
to  promoting  adulteration  as  well  as  to  detecting  it. 
The  purity  and  soundness  of  food  should  be  protected 
both  in  the  factory  and  in  the  shop.  In  the  production 
of  butter,  various  substitutes  have  been  employed 
which  defy  detection  except  by  the  most  expert 
analysts.  It  has  been  suggested,  therefore,  that 
butter  factories  should  be  registered  and  subject  to 
inspection,  and  that  the  introduction  of  fats  or  oils 
which  might  be  used  for  sophistication  should  not  be 
allowed  into  such  factories. 

The  Sale,  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  permit  the  use  of 
preservatives,  but  -there  must  necessarily  be  a  limit  to 
such  use,  and  the  public  analyst  has  often  a  difficult 
task  in  deciding  whether  foods  containing  preserva- 
tives are  genuine  within  the  meaning  of  the  Acts. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  the  effect  of  such  substances  on 
the  health  of  the  consumer  ;  the  law  on  the  subject  is 
by  no  means  clear,  and  the  findings  of  magistrates  are 
at  variance.  A  great  deal  of  food  must  be  brought  to 
the  consumer  from  a  distance,  and  much  comes  from 
abroad.  The  object  of  preservatives  is  to  check  decom- 
position in  transit  and  in  storage  ;  it  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  if  the  use  of  preservatives  is  forbidden, 
other  means  must  be  found  to  produce  the  same 
result  and  that  if  preservatives  are  allowed  they 
should  not  be  used  in  unnecessary  or  unwholesome 
quantities.  Unless,  however,  the  articles  sold  are  of 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  125 

the  nature,  substance,  and  quality  demanded,  the 
use  of  preservatives  cannot  be  defended,  but  the 
traders  keep  within  the  requirements  by  labelling 
articles  so  as  to  indicate  their  constitution.  The 
principle  of  caveat  emptor  applies  in  these  instances ; 
but  the  buyer  is  not  usually  capable  of  discernment 
in  such  matters  and  knows  little  of  what  he  should 
beware,  and  this  is  especially  so  in  the  case,  of 
drugs.  The  main  point  is  that  their  efficacy  for 
medicinal  purposes  should  in  no  way  be  diminished. 
The  provision  of  definite  standards  is,  therefore, 
essential  to  ensure  their  safe  and  successful  use. 
Advancement  in  knowledge  of  therapeutics  could 
scarcely  be  hoped  for  without  the  quality  of  drugs 
administered  being  properly  guaranteed. 

The  administration  of  the  Acts  also  calls  for  the 
employment  of  chemists,  not  necessarily  public 
analysts,  for  the  defence  of  vendors  in  cases  which 
come  into  court,  and  many  manufacturers  and  traders 
engage  chemists  either  on  their  staffs  or  as  con- 
sultants, to  keep  a  check  on  their  products  and  mer- 
chandise, to  advise  them  as  to  standards  and  so  forth. 
It  should  be  mentioned,  however,  that  in  the  event  of 
legal  proceedings,  whilst  such  chemists  are  required  to 
support  their  findings  personally,  the  certificate  of  a 
public  analyst  is  accepted  as  evidence  without  his 
attendance  at  court,  though  he  may  be  required  to 
attend  for  cross-examination  by  the  defence. 

The  public  analyst  who  makes  a  mistake  suffers  in 
prestige.  In  the  law,  judges  may  frequently  express 
the  opinion  that  the  litigants  have  been  badly  advised  : 
for  instance,  that  a  case  should  not  have  come  into 
court.  This  is  a  matter  between  solicitor  and  client. 
In  medicine,  eminent  physicians  may  make  a  faulty 
diagnosis,  and  scarcely  anyone  hear  of  it.  In  archi- 


126      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

lecture,  mistakes  can  often  be  rectified  before  the 
building  is  completed.  The  public  analyst,  however, 
whose  practice  as  such  consists  largely  of  investigations 
bringing  usually  but  a  small  return,  is  answerable  as  a 
public  official  and  his  reputation  is  at  stake  on  any 
lapse  from  accuracy,  though  it  may  be  the  result 
of  an  accident — for  instance,  through  a  confusion  of 
samples,  or  lack  of  uniformity  of  a  sample  unevenly 
mixed. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  promoters  of  this 
legislation  "  had  their  tongues  in  their  cheeks  "  when 
they  entrusted  its  administration  to  the  Borough  and 
County  Councils,  seeing  that  it  is  directed  in  the  main 
against  the  possible  dishonesty  or  carelessness  of 
tradesmen,  who  are  usually  well  represented  on  such 
bodies. 

The  Acts  were  and  still  are  administered  very  un- 
evenly. In  many  prosecutions  offences  are  regarded 
lightly  by  the  magistrates  who  impose,  for  serious 
impositions  on  the  public,  trivial  fines,  representing 
but  a  small  fraction  of  the  ill-gotten  gains  made  by 
fraudulent  traders. 

The  Acts  still  need  a  far  more  rigid  enforcement  ; 
far  more  samples  will  have  to  be  examined  and  the 
penalties  of  infringement  greatly  increased  before  a 
pure  supply  of  food  can  be  ensured. 

In  the  Alkali,  etc.,  Works  Regulation  Act  and  the 
Factory  Act,  the  administration  lies  with  the  central 
authority,  and  it  has  often  been  debated  whether  the 
same  system  should  not  apply  in  the  administration 
of  the  statutes  against  adulteration.  Formerly,  the 
constituent  members  of  local  authorities  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  training  and  experience  necessary 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  professional  chemical  prac- 
tice ;  they  did  not  understand  the  nature  of  the 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  127 

analysts'- duties  ;  but  there  are  signs  of  a  better  appre- 
ciation of  these  matters  since  the  regulations  as  to 
competency  of  public  analysts  were  framed  by  the 
Local  Government  Boards.  The  standard  of  com- 
petence is  now  well  defined,  the  Boards  accepting,  as 
sufficient  documentary  evidence  of  the  requisite 
qualification,  the  Fellowship  or  Associateship  of  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry,  together  with  the  certificate 
granted  by  the  Institute  after  an  examination  con- 
ducted by  them  on  lines  approved  by  the  Board  in 
therapeutics,  pharmacology,  and  microscopy. 

Public  Analysts  should  be  men  of  the  highest 
character,  receiving  sufficient  remuneration  and 
occupying  such  a  position  as  to  place  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  any  inducement  to  relax  their  duty  in  any 
respect,  or  in  any  sense  misuse  the  advantage  of  their 
positions. 

If  the  appointments  are  made  unattractive  to  the 
best  men,  the  administration  of  the  Acts  will  suffer. 
The  responsibility  lies  with  the  local  authorities  and 
with  the  Local  Government  Boards.  The  latter  are 
loath  to  interfere  with  local  authorities  in  the  question 
of  remuneration,  but  they  are  fully  empowered  to  en- 
force proper  administration.  Such  administration  can 
only  follow  when  the  local  authorities  realise  the  im- 
portance of  selecting  competent  and  reliable  officers, 
and  these  can  only  be  obtained  and  retained  perma- 
nently by  making  their  positions  and  the  conditions 
governing  them  in  every  way  commensurable  with  their 
training,  experience,  and  status.  The  Board  have  rightly 
condemned  attempts  to  offer  these  public  appointments 
to  tender.  Good  results  could  scarcely  be  expected  if  a 
local  authority  placed  its  confidence  in  the  man  who 
placed  the  least  value  on  his  services.  Men  must  be 
chosen  who  command  respect  and  confidence,  and  they 


128      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

should  be  assured  reasonable  security  of  tenure  of 
office — protection  against  the  possibility  of  dismissal 
at  the  caprice  of  the  local  authorities. 

Where  the  appointments  are  not  "  whole  time," 
they  constitute  a  useful  nucleus  to  the  consulting 
chemist  who  is  free  to  undertake,  in  addition,  other 
professional  work  The  public  analyst  is  frequently 
engaged  as  a  consultant  to  manufacturers  of  all  kinds 
of  food,  such  as  flour,  bread,  biscuits,  chocolate, 
milk  preparations,  margarine,  preserved  meats  and 
fruits,  pickles,  jams,  etc.  Occasionally,  too,  he  is 
required  to  investigate  cases  of  suspected  poisoning,  in- 
volving the  -examination  of  viscera,  both  human  and 
animal.  Thus,  the  work  coming  to  a  public  analyst 
covers  a  very  wide  sphere  and  not  only  requires  know- 
ledge, skill,  and  experience,  but  frequently  entails  heavy 
responsibility.  Chemists  who  are  competent  to  hold 
appointments  as  Public  Analysts  are  often  entrusted 
with  the  examination  of  water,  and  the  periodical 
inspection  of  the  supplies  to  the  districts  for  which 
they  act.  Similarly,  they  are  often  qualified  for  hold- 
ing appointments  as  official  agricultural  analysts,  in 
which  capacity  they  examine  samples  taken  under  the 
Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act,  analyse  and  advise 
upon  soils,  and  conduct  other  investigations  for 
agriculturists. 

The  first  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs  Act  was 
passed  in  1893  and  was  amended  in  1906.  The  position 
of  the  official  agricultural  analysts  as  such  is  less 
satisfactory  than  that  of  the  public  analysts,  the  Act 
being  very  inadequately  administered  so  far  as  the 
utilisation  of  the  services  of  the  analysts  is  concerned. 
Less  than  4000  samples  are  submitted  annually  under 
the  Act  to  the  holders  of  about  100  appointments  in 
England  and  Wales. 


PUBLIC  ANALYSTS  129 

Notwithstanding  the  importance  of  science  and 
particularly  of  chemistry  in  the  cultivation  of  the  land 
and  the  feeding  of  cattle,  agricultural  chemistry  can 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  providing  much  scope  for 
practice  except  as  an  adjunct  to  other  professional 
work.  The  competition  of  public  institutions  renders 
it  of  small  advantage  for  chemists  to  engage  in  this 
branch,  unless  they  are  retained  by  one  or  mo're  of  the 
well-known  agricultural  societies,  and  can  establish  a 
connection  with  large  commercial  concerns  manu- 
facturing or  importing  fertilisers  and  feeding  stuffs, 
the  most  responsible  and  the  only  really  remunerative 
part  of  this  department  of  work.  Yet  there  is  hardly 
an  industry  which  owes  more  to  the  chemist  than 
agriculture.  As  the  source  of  food  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  of  textile  production  and  all  that  is  necessary 
to  the  maintenance  of  life,  agriculture  of  all  industries 
demands  the  closest  attention  of  men  of  science.  The 
application  of  chemistry  and  bacteriology  to  the 
treatment  of  soils  has  vastly  improved  the  output 
and  quality  of  all  agricultural  products.  As  the  crops 
exhaust  the  life-maintaining  constituents  of  the  soil, 
means  must  be  found  for  restoring  such  constituents, 
or  the  soil  becomes  barren.  The  introduction  of 
chemical  fertilisers  is  the  outcome  of  scientific  dis- 
covery ;  the  continued  satisfactory  supply  of  such 
substances  depends  largely  on  the  supply  of  com- 
petent chemists. 

Before  passing  to  the  subject  of  industrial  chemistry, 
some  consideration  will  be  given  in  the  next  chapter 
to  questions  of  professional  conduct  and  procedure  as 
they  are  mainly  of  concern  to  chemists  in  independent 
practice,  though  it  is  always  possible  that  information 
on  such  matters  may  be  of  use  to  chemists  engaged  in 
other  branches. 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE 

IT  is  clearly  material  for  every  student  preparing 
for  a  professional  career  to  know  something  of  his 
obligations  as  well  as  of  his  privileges.  These  obliga- 
tions affect  mainly  his  ideas  of  loyalty,  discipline,  and 
unselfishness. 

All  who  are  concerned  with  the  advancement  of 
professional  interests  recognise  that  it  is  as  essential 
to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  conduct  and  to  create 
a  fellowship  conforming  to  recognised  ethics  as  it  is 
to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  competency. 

Any  departure  by  a  member  of  a  recognised  pro- 
fessional body  from  the  accepted  code  renders  the 
offender  liable  to  have  his  conduct  enquired  into  with 
the  possibility  of  reprimand,  suspension,  or  .expulsion. 
The  ill-considered  action  of  an  individual  member  may 
affect  adversely  the  general  body  in  the  estimation  of 
the  public.  It  should  be  a  matter  of  personal  concern 
for  every  practitioner,  whether  or  not  a  member  of  any 
professional  organisation,  to  assist  in  maintaining  the 
reputation  of  his  calling  by  refraining  from  any  doubt- 
ful course  of  action,  and  to  do  what  he  can  in  his  own 
domain  of  work  to  advance  both  his  art  or  science 
and  his  profession.  These  matters  are  largely  a 
question  of  taste  :  good  taste  is  the  proper  appreciation 
of  what  is  fitting.  However,  we  must  beware  how  we 
judge  others,  since  the  circumstances  may  be  im- 
perfectly known  and  appreciated  except  by  those  most 
intimately  concerned.  Their  intentions  may  be  good, 

130 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE  131 

their  motives  free  from  self-interest,  or  they  may  be 
more  sinned  against  than  sinning. 

The  chemist  starting  in  practice  for  himself  is 
thrown  on  his  own  resources ;  he  must  use  his  own 
judgment,  acting  according  to  his  conviction  of  what 
is  right,  bearing  in  mind  that  his  conduct  in  the  early 
days  of  practice  will  probably  influence  his  subsequent 
career.  He  may  be  free  to  place  what  value  he  pleases 
on  his  time  and  professional  knowledge  and  skill ;  as 
in  other  professions,  his  fees  may  vary  with  the  cir- 
cumstances— for  instance,  the  financial  interests  and 
responsibility  involved — but  he  should  realise  his 
position  as  a  member  of  a  profession  and  endeavour  to 
conform  to  its  standards.  His  education  and  technical 
training  give  him  a  definite  status  and  warrant  him  in 
supporting  the  profession  generally  by  requiring 
adequate  material  reward  without  having  recourse  to 
unfair  practices. 

The  fee  also  may  sometimes  determine  the  extent 
of  the  investigation  and  the  attention  to  be  given  to  it, 
while  in  all  such  matters  the  public  take  men  very 
much  at  their  own  estimation  and  expect  to  get  what 
they  pay  for. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  formulate  schedules 
of  fees  for  analyses,  but  the  conditions  of  practice  are 
so  various  that  it  is  impossible  to  decide  definitely  the 
fees  or  remuneration  applicable  to  all  cases,  having 
regard  to  such  considerations  as  the  locality,  the  value 
of  the  work  to  the  client  or  employer,  the  nature  and 
scope  of  the  investigation  and  the  professional  status 
of  the  chemist  concerned.  Chemists  may  be  equally 
well  qualified,  but  some  will  place  a  higher  value  on 
their  services  than  others.  At  the  same  time,  pro- 
fessional men  are  under  a  common  obligation  to  one 
another  not  to  create  a  competitive  spirit  or  to  "  under- 


132      THE  PROFESSION  OF- CHEMISTRY 

cut  "  deliberately  the  fees  commonly  charged  for  any 
particular  kind  of  work.  Each  individual  is  expected,  in 
this  as  in  other  matters,  to  support  the  position  taken  by 
his  profession  as  a  whole,  and  to  be  prepared  on  occa- 
sion to  make  some  sacrifice  in  the  general  cause. 

The  main  point  for  every  practitioner  is  to  avoid  any 
course  of  action  which  is  likely  to  injure  the  interests 
of  his  profession.  In  any  case  of  doubt,  an  older 
practitioner  will  usually  readily  give  a  beginner  the 
benefit  of  his  views  on  such  matters. 

The  maintenance  of  status  of  a  profession  cannot  be 
secured  solely  by  ensuring  the  competence  of  those  who 
practise.  Those  who  cannot  command  proper  recog- 
nition for  their  services,  in  the  form  of  adequate 
remuneration,  obviously  have  no  status.  The  adoption 
of  a  low  standard  is  a  fundamental  error  very  difficult 
to  rectify,  attracts  the  least  desirable  forms  of  practice, 
and  is  injurious  to  the  profession  generally.  "  That 
which  is  not  for  the  interest  of  the  whole  swarm  is  not 
for  the  interest  of  a  single  bee." 

The  chemist  can  only  establish  his  position  by  good 
work  and  integrity.  He  must  keep  himself  in- 
formed of  the  current  work  in  his  science,  and  be  ready 
to  cope  with  any  problem  reasonably  within  his  sphere 
of  practice.  He  should  devote  the  best  .of  his  know- 
ledge and  skill  to  the  interest  of  his  client,  but  it 
is  sometimes  questionable  whether  he  should  under- 
take difficult  problems  outside  his  usual  work ; 
indeed,  he  may  run  the  risk  of  failure  and  his 
reputation  may  suffer,  since  clients  are  apt  to  discredit 
men  who  pretend  to  omniscience.  Sooner  or  later 
such  pretence  becomes  unbearable,  "  the  mask  becomes 
an  instrument  of  torture."1  When  in  doubt  the 

1  Essays  Written  in  the  Internals  of  Business.  Sir  Arthur  Helps. 
In  the  Essays  of  EHa,  also,  we  find  this  passage  bearing  the  same 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE  133 

chemist  can  always  refer  a  client  to  a  practitioner 
having  special  experience  in  the  subject ;  or,  if  his 
client  prefers  to  retain  him  in  the  matter,  suggest  a 
conference  with  a  specialist.  Tact  comes  with  ex- 
perience. In  any  case,  to  talk  over  the  heads  of 
clients,  to  resort  to  mysticism,  or  to  conceal  facts  by  a 
vague  style,  will  not  secure  their  confidence.  It  is 
equally  dangerous  to  form  hasty  conclusions  without 
full  investigation  of  facts.  Advice  should  be  directed 
to  some  practicable  and  not  merely  to  an  ingenious 
solution  ;  if  it  is  destructive  in  character,  something 
constructive  will  be  looked  for  as  a  reasonable  sub- 
stitute. 

One  of  the  principal  functions  of  a  recognised  pro- 
fessional body  is  the  promotion  of  a  proper  under- 
standing as  to  the  conduct  of  its-  members  in  their 
relation  to  the  public  and  to  one  another.  In  the 
guidance  of  members  in  matters  of  professional  conduct 
the  example  of  the  medical  profession  has  been  fre- 
quently taken  into  .consideration.  The  General 
Medical  Council,  who  are  elected  by  the  practitioners 
and  whose  decisions  are  subject  to  appeal  to  the  Privy 
Council,  are  empowered  to  remove  after  due  enquiry 
any  practitioner  deemed  guilty  of  "  infamous  conduct 
in  a  professional  respect."  Their  existence  has  con- 
tributed to  the  strengthening  of  the  organisation  of  the 
medical  profession,  not  only  in  the  maintenance  of  a 
standard  of  qualification  for  practice,  but  also  in  the 
establishment  of  a  code  of  professional  honour.  As  in 
medicine,  so  in  chemistry,  that  kind  of  competition 
which  takes  the  form  of  self-advertising  or  appealing 

lesson  :  "...  the  fact  is,  a  man  may  do  very  well  with  a  very  little- 
knowledge,  and  scarce  be  'found  out,  in  mixed  company ;  every- 
body is  so  much  more  ready  to  produce  his  own,  than  to  call  for  a 
display  of  your  acquisitions.  But  in  a  t£te-d-t$te  there  is  no  shuffling. 
The  truth  will  out." 


134      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

in  any  irregular  manner  for  patronage,  is  properly  dis- 
countenanced, as  is  also  the  giving  of  "  trade  puffs." 

Advertising  is  seldom  resorted  to  by  professional 
men  :  barristers,  solicitors,  and  members  of  the  Stock 
Exchange  are  forbidden  under  severe  penalties  to 
advertise.  It  is  not  only  a  matter  of  taste,  but  amounts 
to  an  admission  that  those  who  resort  to  it  are  unable 
to  secure  a  clientele  by  legitimate  means. 

A  passage  from  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  is  interest- 
ing in  this  connection:  Boswell :  "You  would  not 
solicit  employment,  Sir,  if  you  were  a  lawyer/'  John- 
son :  "  No,  Sir,  but  not  because  I  should  think  it 
wrong,  but  because  I  should  disdain  it."  Boswell's 
comment  on  this  was  that  the  doctor  had  made  a  good 
distinction,  which  would  be  felt  by  men  of  just  pridi. 
Johnson  proceeded  :  "  However,  I  would  not  have  a 
lawyer  be  wanting  to  himself  in  using  fair  means.  I 
would  have  him  inject  a  little  hint  now  and  then  to 
prevent  his  being  overlooked." 

There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  a  man  of  good  sense 
determining  for  himself  the  manner  of  injecting  "  the 
little  hint."  It  should  clearly  not  be  by  means  of 
advertisement,  or  personal  soliciting,  or  by  deliberately 
striving  to  deprive  another  practitioner  of  a  client. 

The  giving  of  trade  certificates  for  "  puffing " 
purposes  is  also  rightly  regarded  as  a  modified  form  of 
self-advertisement.  Nothing  reflects  so  much  dis- 
credit upon  professional  chemistry  as  the  issue  of 
certificates  in  favour  of  questionable  articles,  or  such 
as  contain  merely  laudatory  or  irrelevant  statements. 
It  is  quite  unjustifiable,  for  instance,  to  give  publicity 
to  comparisons  between  the  manufactures  of  a  client 
and  those  of  other  firms  in  the  same  trade.  The 
chemist  is  expected  to  be  correct  in  his  statements  of 
fact,  and  to  found  his  opinions  on  facts.  The  best 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE  135 

methods  of  investigation  known  should  be  used  and  all 
data  ascertained  by  careful  experiment,  properly  con- 
firmed. Reports  should  be  in  definite  and  intelligible 
language,  and  should  neither  be  liable  to  be  misunder- 
stood nor  capable  of  being  misinterpreted. 

A  chemist  should  decline  to  undertake  work  the 
report  on  which  he  is  aware  will  be  used  for  an  im- 
proper purpose.  Cases  have  occurred  in  which  it  has 
been  clearly  proved  that  false  reports  have  been  pub- 
lished under  the  names  of  well-known  practitioners, 
and  others  in  which  reports  have  been  used  without 
any  authorisation,  or  garbled,  or  abbreviated  with 
omission  of  essential  statements.  Obviously  it  is 
equally  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  his  profession 
for  a  chemist  to  be  associated  with  any  organisation 
which  adopts  the  methods  of  conducting  practice  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  and  such  association  may 
bring  him  into  disrepute  among  his  professional 
brethren. 

The  chemist  engaged  in  matters  of  legal  and  quasi- 
legal  enquiry  may  be  brought  prominently  to  the 
public  notice  and  his  position  is  often  one  of  great 
difficulty.  He  has  to  do  his  best  for  his  client  even  if  the 
latter  is  in  the  wrong,  but  he  should  adhere  strictly  to 
the  facts.  He  is  not  a  witness  by  profession,  but  a  pro- 
fessional witness,  and  his  duty  is  to  assist  in  the  proper 
determination  of  the  subject  of  dispute,  by  giving  his 
evidence  clearly  and  fairly.  Facts  must  not  be  dis- 
torted so  as  to  convey  a  wrong  impression  to  the  un- 
initiated ;  when  the  other  side  is  heard  such  artifice 
will  usually  recoil  severely  on  those  who  attempt  it. 
The  chemist  when  consulted  on  a  matter  likely  to  be 
the  subject  of  litigation  should  explain  the  position 
clearly  and  impartially  to  his  client,  and  should  point 
out  that  his  evidence  must  be  in  accordance  with  the 


136      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

facts  determined.  He  cannot  commit  himself  to 
giving  a  favourable  opinion  beforehand  as  he  may 
sometimes  be  expected  to  do,  and  he  must  risk  the 
displeasure  of  his  client  in  this,  if  he  values  his  good 
name  and  professional  position.  He  cannot  allow  him- 
self to  acquire  a  reputation  for  bolstering  up  unsatis- 
factory cases. 

In  the  past,  the  evidence  given  by  scientific 
witnesses  in  legal  cases  was  not  infrequently  so  con- 
flicting that  considerable  discredit  was  thrown  on  those 
appearing  on  both  sides,  to  their  common  injury  and 
to  the  detriment  of  the  profession  generally.  It  is, 
however,  long  since  a  Master  of  the  Rolls,  losing  his 
patience  with  the  scientific  witnesses  in  a  case,  said 
that  he  did  not  pay  the  slightest  attention  to  their 
evidence,  remarking  that  they  attacked  one  another  in 
a  most  reprehensible  manner. 

The  conflicting  testimony  of  equally  qualified 
experts  must  in  most  cases  be  attributable  to  the  circum- 
stance that  neither  has  had  the  full  facts  brought  under 
his  notice.  The  chemist  may  not  be  in  possession  of  all 
the  essential  facts ;  he  may  unwittingly  be  asked  to 
undertake  an  investigation  with  only  part  of  the 
material  facts  before  him,  and  may  be  led  into  com- 
mitting himself  to  an  opinion  which  would  be  modified 
if  he  were  more  fully  informed.  In  some  cases  the 
employment  of  chemical  referees  as  a  kind  of  court  of 
arbitration,  or  the  provision  of  means  whereby  the 
advisers  of  both  sides  can  meet  in  consultation,  may 
prove  a  great  saving  of  expense  to  those  who  would 
otherwise  be  litigants.  This  system  may  result  in  the 
reduction  of  the  work  and  fees  of  chemists  engaged,  but 
that  should  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  desire 
to  assist  in  the  proper  settlement  of  such  matters,  and 
the  recognition  that  fewer  reputations  are  injured  and 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE  137 

much  expense  saved  to  those  from  whom  the  profession 
derives  practice. 

The  main  ethical  point  is  the  observance  of  respect 
for  the  other  side  :  a  professional  man  should  not  dis- 
parage another  member  of  his  profession,1  and  should 
avoid  forming  an  unfair  estimate  of  an  opponent  -merely 
because  the  latter  happens  to  hold  opinions  contrary 
to  his  own.  The  facts  have  probably  been  presented 
to  each  in  a  different  light,  and  one  or  the  other  may  be 
possessed  of  additional  information.  Adverse  criticism 
of  the  opinion  of  another  is  not  the  function  of  the  pro- 
fessional witness.  Both  are  engaged  in  a  common  duty 
for  the  service  of  the  public,  and  should  appreciate  the 
idea  that  their  profession  constitutes  a  bond  of  fellow- 
ship even  though  they  cannot  always  agree.  The 
chemist  may  be  compelled  to  contradict  the  opinion  of 
another,  but  this  can  be  done  with  courtesy.  His 
business  is  to  substantiate  his  own  views,  which  must 
be  founded  on  his  knowledge  deduced  from  scientific 
experiment  and  established  fact.  The  accuracy  of 
instruments  and  vessels,  purity  of  reagents,  etc.,  may 
be  questioned,  but  he  should  be  careful  how  he  exposes 

1  This  is  a  matter  for  wider  application  than  to  proceedings  in 
the  courts  of  law.  Caution  in  criticism  of  the  work  of  others  is 
always  advisable,  since  the  experience  of  the  past  has  so  often 
shown  what  seemed  most  unlikely  to  be  established  fact.  We  recall 
the  rancour  existing  among  the  alchemists,  which  may  be  illustrated 
by  a  reference  to  the  foreword  to  The  Art  of  Distillation  (1651), 
wherein  Dr.  John  French — though  many  of  his  own  remarkable 
experiments  may  be  questioned — stigmatises  some  of  his  con- 
temporaries as  "  sophisticating  and  cheating  mountebanks, 
who  deserve  to  be  bound  to  the  peace  "  and  anticipates  their  re- 
prisals. Occasionally,  a  discovery  is  made  of  somewhat  novel  or 
astonishing  character,  drawing  from  the  unwary  comments  which 
they  are  bound  later  to  retract  to  their  discomfort.  Davy  opposed 
Dalton's  atomic  hypothesis  ;  later,  Newlands'  Law  of  Octaves  was 
regarded  at  first  as  rather  frivolous  and,  still  later,  the  discovery  of 
Argon  by  Ramsay  and  Rayleigh  was  seriously  open  to  doubt,  which 
seemed  reasonable  enough  to  many,  for  who  could  suppose  that  we 
did  not  at  that  time  (1894)  know  the  constitution  of  the  air  ! 


138      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

what  he  considers  mistakes  on  the  part  of  his  opponents. 
He  will  be  wise  also  to  guard  against  talking  of  the  case 
while  it  is  yet  undecided. 

[^Scientific  evidence,  if  it  is  to  carry  conviction,  should 
be  precise  and  definite,  and  given  with  caution  and 
moderation.  It  should  be  given  clearly  and  in  language 
reasonably  free  from  scientific  terms  not  easily  under- 
stood by  judges  or  ordinary  jurymen.  The  results  of 
actual  work  in  the  experience  of  the  chemist  are  of  more 
value  than  any  opinion  derived  from  books.  Even  if  his 
answer  is  adverse  to  the  side  for  which  he  is  acting  he 
must  give  it  frankly,  although  he  may  be  able  to  add 
qualifying  expressions  by  way  of  explanation.  Fencing 
with  cross-examination  or  shirking  questions  will  not 
command  confidence  ;  the  volunteering  of  information 
is  frequently  unjustifiable,  being  regarded  as  an 
attempt  to  change  the  course  of  the  evidence. 

The  scientific  witness  may  decline  to  answer  ques- 
tions outside  his  knowledge  ;  he  can  ask  for  time  to 
consider  or  opportunity  to  experiment.  If  a  chemist 
expresses  an  apparently  different  opinion  on  a  point 
in  a  subsequent  case,  he  should  be  ready  with  reasons 
justifying  his  change  of  mind. 

To  each  question  put  by  counsel  he  is  expected  to 
give  a  direct  answer,  and  his  manner,  whether  prompt 
or  halting,  may  not  be  interpreted  correctly.  He  may 
be  sensitive,  sometimes,  about  answering  questions 
relating  to  his  professional  work  ;  but  it  is  his  duty 
to  testify  to  facts  or  to  give  his  opinion,  as  the  case 
may  be,  on  matters  which  are  special  to  his  knowledge, 
in  order  that  the  court  may  give  due  weight  to  his 
evidence  ;  the  questions  put  to  him,  therefore,  should 
deal  mainly  with  his  science  and  skill.  No  one  is 
entitled  to  consider  himself  infallible  ;  so  that  if  on 
being  confronted  with  an  opposite  view  a  chemist  who 


PROFESSIONAL  PROCEDURE  139 

is  to  be  called  as  a  witness  feels  disposed  to  vary  his 
own,  the  client  should  be  informed  as  soon  as  possible, 
in  order  that  he  may  be  spared  further  litigation.  The 
reputation  of  the  chemist  himself  will  suffer  less  than 
if  he  were  to  allow  his  client  to  proceed  with  an  action 
the  result  of  which  cannot  be  satisfactory. 

Public  analysts  and  the  official  analysts  to  the  Home 
Office  are  called  in  for  investigations  arising  in  con- 
nection with  cases  of  suspected  poisoning,  or  it  may  be 
for  the  identification  of  blood-stains  in  cases  of  sus- 
pected murder  or  foul  play,  or  in  other  criminal  in- 
vestigations. In  such  matters,  possibly  involving 
evidence  on  which  the  life  of  a  human  being  may 
depend,  the  necessity  for  skilled  experts  is  apparent, 
and  it  is  equally  obvious  that  what  they  state  as  fact 
should  be  absolutely  established  and  that  their  opinions 
should  bear  the  most  stringent  examination. 

Probably  there  have  been  few  better  examples  than 
that  of  the  late  Sir  Thomas  Stevenson  for  the  straight- 
forwardness and  certainty  of  his  evidence ;  the 
importance  of  the  cases  in  which  he  appeared  made 
him  subject  to  the  most  formidable  kind  of  cross- 
examination,  but  he  could  not  be  led  into  giving  any 
opinion  not  definitely  founded  on  facts.  Lord  Bramp- 
ton — Mr.  Justice  Hawkins — before  whom  Sir  Thomas 
frequently  gave  evidence  said  of  him  that  he  was  con- 
vinced that  he  was  always  right  in  his  evidence, 
adding  that  he  had  always  respected  him  for  his 
courage  and  candour  and  truth,  and  after  sixty  years' 
experience  in  the  law  if  he  were  asked  to  name  the  man 
on  whose  evidence  he  could  most  implicitly  rely  he 
would  turn  to  Dr.  Stevenson. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  counsel  and  judges  who  have  sufficient 
technical  knowledge  to  enable  them  to  grasp  the 


140       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

details  of  scientific  cases.  Suggestions  have  been  ad- 
vanced for  the  formation  of  juries  composed  of 
scientific  experts,  but  such  an  arrangement  would 
scarcely  be  satisfactory  ;  probably  their  own  opinions 
would  be  at  variance,  and  not  of  greater  value  than 
those  of  the  opposing  experts. 

Among  the  Romans  the  office  of  Censor  was  much 
revered ;  it  conferred  great  powers,  especially  in 
examining  men's  lives.  Professional  bodies  of  our 
time  also  appoint  Censors  to  investigate  complaints 
regarding  the  professional  conduct  of  their  members. 
By  the  influence  of  the  Censors  of  the  Institute  of 
Chemistry  and  by  conferences  on  matters  of  this  kind 
much  has  been  done  to  bring  about  a  high  standard  of 
professional  procedure  in  this  country,  so  that  there 
exists  among  our  chemists  a  sense  of  mutual  respon- 
sibility in  their  relations  to  one  another  and  to  the 
public. 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY 

A  LTHOUGH  the  alchemists  sought  riches  and  the 
jfjL  elixir,  their  successors  of  the  eighteenth  century 
for  the  most  part  regarded  the  study  of  chemistry  as  a 
pastime ;  its  connection  with  industry  was  scarcely  con- 
ceived, and  few  workers  in  science  pursued  their  experi- 
ments with  any  idea  of  making  their  fortunes.  The  pro- 
prietors of  works  were  mainly  commercial  men  relying 
on  foremen  more  or  less  acquainted  with  the  operations 
involved,  but  possessing  themselves  little  knowledge 
of  the  principles  on  which  they  were  based.  In  many 
concerns  it  was  seldom  that  deliberate  thought  was 
given  to  the  question  of  seeking  improvements  in 
working  methods.  The  processes  adopted  were 
commonly  founded  on  empiricism,  or  accumulated 
experience,  handed  down  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. If  the  owners  were  beaten  by  competitors  in  one 
direction,  they  might  be  doing  well  in  another, 
and  were  then  inclined  to  be  content  to  "make 
on  the  swings  what  they  lost  on  the  roundabouts." 
Much  importance  was  attached  to  processes  being  kept 
secret  :  sometimes  it  happened  that  the  secret  was 
lost  through  the  death  of  a  partner  or  trusted  foreman  ; 
more  often  the  "  secret  "  was  the  common  property  of 
the  industry.  There  are  secrets,  however,  and  many  are 
kept  for  long  years  ;  so  that  the  most  recent  techno- 
logical literature  published  may  contain  all  but  what 
we  are  most  anxious  to  know.  In  the  course  of  time, 


142      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

the  introduction  of  trained  men  of  science  sometimes 
revealed  the  secrets  and  led  to  the  discovery  of 
better  ones,  speedily  effecting  changes  in  the  direction 
of  methodical  improvement ;  but  even  then,  the 
chemist  was  not  infrequently  denied  the  run  of  the 
works  lest  he  should  learn  too  much.  Later,  as  the 
advance  of  his  science  elucidated  manufacturing 
problems,  and  he  became  more  closely  connected  with 
the  large  scale  operations,  he  was  not  infrequently  at  a 
disadvantage  through  lack  of  engineering  knowledge. 

The  invention  of  a  process  is  not  complete  until  the 
plant  for  it  has  proved  efficient  on  the  manufacturing 
scale.  The  designer  must  possess  both  scientific  and 
engineering  knowledge  and  skill,  and  thus  even  where 
the  chemical  character  of  the  processes  predominates, 
the  chemist  who  is  not  equipped  for  such  work  often 
finds  himself  occupying  a  comparatively  subordinate 
position. 

We  propose  now  to  give,  some  indication  of  the 
nature  of  the  work  and  the  prospects  of  the  chemist  in 
industry ;  to  show  how  the  old  order  changes  giving 
place  to  the  new. 

The  realisation  of  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
the  employment  of  trained  men  of  science  and  the  keen 
competition  resulting  from  improved  processes  were 
among  the  main  causes  of  the  widespread  promotion  of 
technical  education  in  this  and  other  countries. 

In  the  increasing  applications  of  science  to  indus- 
trial development,  the  co-operation  of  the  profession 
of  chemistry  is  of  primary  importance,  though  there 
has  been  in  the  past  a  tendency  to  belittle  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  domain  of  scientific  endeavour.  So  little 
has  been  heard  of  successes  and  so  much  of  failures 
that  it  might  be  supposed  that  few  industries  had  done 
well ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  our  manufacturers  in 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  143 

various  branches  of  industry  could  not  have  main- 
tained their  position  so  well  as  they  have  done  if 
they  had  not  constantly  consulted  chemists  in 
practice  or  employed  them  in  the  works.  Chemists 
are  attached  to  almost  every  productive  industry  of 
any  importance  throughout  the  country.  The  follow- 
ing list,  selected  from  the  schedule  adopted  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  affords 
some  idea  of  the  range  of  industries  with  which  they 
are  connected  : — l 

Gas.  Electro-metallurgy. 

Oils  :  fats,  waxes.  Paints,  pigments,  varnishes, 

Distillation :    fermentation  resins. 

industries.  Indiarubber,  gutta-percha. 

Dyes  :    colouring   matters,  Leather,  bone,  horn,  glue. 

bleaching,  calico  printing,  Sugar,  starches,  gums. 

finishing. 

Textiles :     fibres,    cellulose,  Fertilisers. 

paper.  Foods :  feeding  stuffs. 

Acids :  alkalies,  salts,  chem-  Pharmaceutical  substances : 

ical  reagents.  drugs,  essential  oils. 

Glass :    ceramics,     cement,  Photographic  materials. 

building  materials.  Explosives,  matches. 
Metals  :  iron  and  steel,  cop- 
per, alloys,  etc. 

The  list  indicates  a  wide  scope  for  the  application  of 
scientific  knowledge,  but  it  by  no  means  covers  the 
whole  field  open  to  chemists.  Staffs  of  chemists  are 
required  by  railways,  shipbuilding  yards,  dockyards, 
arsenals,  mines,  agricultural  experiment  stations,  and, 
apart  from  industries,  in  mints,  in  sewage  disposal 
works,  by  rivers  boards  and  so  forth. 

Thus,  not  only  in  the  manufacture  of  chemical  pro- 
ducts, but  in  practically  all  productive  industries  as 
in  many  other  spheres  of  activity,  chemists  are  now 
recognised  as  a  part  of  the  essential  organisation,  and 

1  See  also  "  What  Industry  owes  to  Chemical  Science." 


144      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

our  leaders  of  industry  are  becoming  increasingly 
alive  to  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  their  help, 
whether  from  frequent  conferences  with  consultants 
or  through  the  more  extensive  employment  of  chemists 
on  the  controlling  staffs  of  their  concerns. 

It  is  fully  recognised  that  however  well  the  work 
may  be  carried  out  by  those  engaged  in  the  actual 
manufacture,  the  commercial  man — the  man  who  buys 
and  sells — is  also  of  such  consequence  that  the  success 
of  an  industrial  undertaking  must  always  depend  to  a 
large  extent  on  his  ability,  but  rule  of  thumb  methods 
of  manufacture  have  been  steadily  replaced  by 
scientific,  and  thus  a  demand  has  arisen  for  competent 
chemists  in  the  following  capacities  :— • 

(a)  Analytical  chemists,  for  the  examination  of  raw 
materials,  intermediate  products,   products  and  by- 
products. 

(b)  Research    chemists,    to    investigate    problems 
arising  in  connection  with  the  operations  of  manufac- 
ture, and  to  assist  in  devising  new  methods  or  intro- 
ducing new  products. 

(c)  Control  chemists,  to  devise,  direct,  and  supervise 
processes  on  the  large  scale. 

(d)  Consulting    chemists    and    chemical    engineers 
with  experience  in  technology,  to  advise  periodically  on 
the  general  progress  of  the  work,  on  the  development 
of  new  projects  and  the  design  and  erection  of  plant. 

Without  an  army  of  such  men  no  country  can 
hope  to  maintain  its  position  in  industry  and 
commerce. 

Largely  because  of  the  nature  of  the  industries 
which  have  been  developed  for  war  purposes,  the 
chemical  staffs  of  many  concerns  have  lately  been 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  145 

greatly  augmented,  so  that  in  quite  a  number  of  cases 
thirty  or  forty  chemists,  and  in  a  few  instances  over 
200  chemists,  have  been  engaged  for  analytical, 
research,  and  control  work. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  our  Universities  and  Colleges 
were  almost  denuded  of  chemical  students,  it  was 
repeatedly  urged  that  we  should  make  every  pro- 
vision for  the  future  supply  of  chemists  for  industries ; 
but  it  is  by  no  means  established  that  the  demand 
for  them  will  be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  supply  which 
is  likely  to  be  available.  The  success  of  German 
industries  in  the  past  and  the  lesson  of  the  war,  which 
have  clearly  shown  the  value  of  science,  should  convince 
leaders  of  industries  of  all  kinds  that  chemists  in  con- 
siderable numbers  will  be  required  for  any  serious 
endeavour  to  develop  their  undertakings  when  the 
opportunity  offers. 

How  can  good  business  in  buying  and  selling  be  done 
except  with  the  help  of  analysts  ;  or  new  products  be 
devised,  waste  products  utilised,  or  works  problems 
be  solved,  without  research  chemists  ;  or  new  processes 
be  suggested  and  put  to  the  proof  of  experiment  with- 
out chemists  on  the  works  ?  How  can  a  board  of  direc- 
tors know  what  is  feasible  when  a  scientific  proposition 
is  made  if  they  have  no  scientific  directors  or  advisers  ? 
Manufacturers  should  encourage  research  by  main- 
taining research  laboratories  in  their  own  works  and 
by  encouraging  the  training  of  research  chemists  in  the 
problems  of  their  industries.  Consultants  should  be 
employed ;  the  help  of  reliable  specialists  is  often 
imperative  ;  but  there  should  be  many  more  specialists 
having  a  more  intimate  interest  in  industry  than  that 
afforded  by  occasional  consultations.  There  should  be 
a  liberal  attitude  towards  science,  and  initiative  should 
be  encouraged  by  ensuring  that  results  will  be  as  sub- 


146      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

stantially  recognised  as  they  are  abroad.  There  will  be 
little  or  no  result  if  the  treatment  of  chemists  is  not 
materially  changed  from  what  it  has  too  often  been 
in  the  past.  Adequate  prospects  must  be  assured  to 
attract  a  continued  supply  of  men  of  the  right  stamp. 
We  have  never  been  deficient  in  our  supply  of  chemists  ; 
and  this  should  be  apparent  from  the  fact  that  good 
chemists — well-trained  graduates — were  willing  to 
accept  very  moderate  salaries  right  up  to  the  out- 
break of  war  ;  they  could  always  be  obtained  when 
satisfactory  conditions  were  offered  ;  but  comparatively 
few  suitable  openings  were  then  available  to  them. 
This  would  apply  also,  though  at  times  in  a  less  degree, 
to  those  experienced  in  research ;  yet  there  were  young 
chemists  in  plenty  who  would  have  welcomed  an 
opportunity  of  working  with  experienced  investigators. 

Works  Analysts. 

The  chemist  starting  in  industrial  work  is  not  in- 
frequently engaged  at  first  in  the  laboratory.  Ex- 
perience with  a  practising  analyst,  where  knowledge 
can  be  gained  of  rapid  methods  of  analysis  of  com- 
mercial samples,  often  affords  a  good  preparation  for 
the  works  laboratory. 

In  most  manufacturing  concerns  of  importance  a 
staff  of  analysts  under  the  control  of  a  highly  com- 
petent chemist  will  be  engaged  on  routine  tests.  Many 
such  analysts  have  been  trained  in  works  to  carry  out  a 
limited  variety  of  operations  of  more  or  less  simple 
character  according  to  their  ability.  .Such  analysts 
may  have  made  their  first  acquaintance  with  science 
as  laboratory  attendants,  and  of  these  a  considerable 
number  make  little  endeavour,  or  lack  the  capability, 
to  rise  above  ordinary  routine  ;  others,  by  attending 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  147 

evening  classes  and  making  the  most  of  their  oppor- 
tunities, may  improve  in  knowledge  and  skill  and 
eventually  attain  positions  of  responsibility.  Others 
again  are  trained  men  with  good  qualifications  taking, 
at  first,  minor  positions  to  obtain  experience.  These 
also  may  find  opportunities  for  showing  initiative  in 
the  improvement  of  methods  of  analysis  or  possibly  in 
suggesting  research  bearing  on  the  manufacture  con- 
cerned. 

For  certain  purposes,  analysis  in  the  works  laboratory 
must  be  in  the  highest  degree  accurate,  while  for  other 
purposes  rough  tests  only  are  required.  Results  on 
which  the  price  of  raw  material  or  of  products  in 
large  quantities  may  be  fixed  are  compared  with  those 
of  external  analysts  representing  the  interests  of 
sellers  of  the  former  and  buyers  of  the  latter.  Deter- 
minations of  important  constituents  of  intermediate 
products  are  also  made,  rapidly  and  sufficiently 
accurately,  for  the  information  of  chemists  controlling 
the  manufacturing  processes.  The  laboratory,  there- 
fore, should  be  suitably  fitted  for  the  routine  work  in 
order  that  results  may  be  available  with  as  little  delay 
as  possible. 

Works  Research  Chemists. 

Bacon  would  have  defined  pure  research  as  "  light 
bearing  "  experiments,  tending  towards  the  discovery 
of  causes  and  axioms ;  and  industrial  research  as 
"  fruit  bearing,"  tending  towards  the  practical  utilisa- 
tion of  the  former.  .  ;. 

Chemists  engaged  in  the  research  laboratory  should 
be  qualified  to  tackle  new  problems  or  to  devise  means 
for  overcoming  difficulties.  The  main  lines  of  in- 
vestigation lie  in  the  following  directions ;— 


148      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

(i.)  improvement  of  quality  ; 

(ii.)  increase  of  yield  ; 
(iii.)  reduction  of  working  costs  ; 
(iv.)  utilisation  of  waste  ; 

(v.)  introduction  of  new  manufactures. 

We  do  not  suggest,  however,  that  there  should  be  any 
limit  to  this  domain,  for  the  true  research  chemist  is 
an  artist  who  should  be  allowed  scope  for  following 
his  inspirations,  wherever  they  may  lead  him. 

Every  manufacturing  concern  of  any  magnitude 
should  retain  a  staff  of  chemists  for  experimental 
research  and  a  number  of  probationers  to  be  trained 
for  investigation  in  industrial  problems.  Conferences 
with  control  chemists  and  engineers  should  be  held 
from  time  to  time  as  the  work  proceeds.  Profitable 
results  are  constantly  obtained  and  they  are  occasion- 
ally of  such  revolutionary  character  as  to  abundantly 
repay  the  whole  cost  involved. 

Technological  research  is  usually  more  likely  to  be 
useful  and  successful  when  conducted  in  the  works  and 
as  nearly  as  possible  under  works  conditions  with  due 
regard  to  financial  considerations.  If  the  problem  is  one 
for  urgent  attention,  or  if  it  necessitates  full  knowledge 
of  the  processes  involved,  it  is,  generally  speaking,  of 
little  use  to  refer  it  to  anyone  who  has  not  the  necessary 
experience  and  all  the  starting  knowledge  of  chemistry 
and  physics  with  which  those  in  the  works  are  already 
equipped,  and  the  efforts  to  attain  much  of  which 
would  otherwise  be  duplicated  to  little  purpose 
Results  depend  mainly  on  whether  the  problems  are 
entrusted  to  men  of  the  right  type. 

As  in  other  branches  of  chemistry,  so  in  chemica 
technology,  those  who  hold  responsible  positions  cannol 
Afford  to  neglect  the  current  scientific  literature— 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  149 

'technical  books  and  journals,  patent  abstracts,  etc. — 
ire  vie  wing  the  industries  with  which  they  are  con- 
cerned in  the  light  of  modern  theory  and  practice, 
i  "rom  studying  processes  and  watching  the  develop- 
ment or  failure  of  industries  generally,  the  chemist 
acquires  ideas  which  may  be  applicable  to  the 
(particular  industry  in  which  he  is  himself  engaged, 
Iwhilst  from  the  study  of  the  interdependence  of 
industries,  he  frequently  finds  means  of  securing 
more  advantageously  the  material  he  requires  or  of 
disposing  of  products  or  by-products  of  his  concern, 
i  Problems  may  also  be  suggested  by  the  special  re- 
quirements of  various  trades.  With  these  possibilities 
in  view,  questions  affecting  the  utilisation  of  by- 
products and  waste  products  are  kept  constantly  in 
|  mind  and  duly  investigated. 

A  suggestion  is  referred  to  the  laboratory  and  be- 
comes the  subject  for  research.  Records  of  work 
bearing  on  the  subject  are  looked  up  and  the  results 
already  achieved  carefully  noted  ;  for,  in  this  pursuit, 
if  a  chemist  would  acquire  knowledge,  he  must  take 
knowledge  with  him.  The  extent  of  investigation 
may  thus  be  shortened  considerably ;  indeed  it 
may  be  found  that  the  identical  problem  has  already 
been  solved.  On  the  other  hand,  the  findings  of 
previous  workers  may  have  to  be  checked  and  aug- 
mented in  the  light  of  modern  progress  ;  a  new  view 
of  the  subject  may  be  obtained  and  a  new  road  found 
to  the  object  sought.  Often  the  work  is  tedious, 
calling  for  the  exercise  of  thought,  skill,  and  patience 
over  a  single  problem  for  a  considerable  period.  This 
is  the  discipline  of  the  research  chemist ;  but  the  goal 
•may  come  in  sight  at  any  moment  if  he  but  persevere 
and  maintain  the  will  to  get  there. 

The  investigation  should  be  directed  to  a  definite 


150      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

aim.  The  mind  of  the  investigator  should  have  full 
freedom  and  not  easily  be  satisfied  by  sudden  notions. 
The  solution  of  the  problem  should  be  pursued  to  its 
fullest  development,  the  work  being  based  on  clear 
perception,  sound  reasoning,  and  keen  discrimination. 

A  new  discovery  may  at  first  be  regarded  merely  as 
an  interesting  curiosity.  Men  of  affairs  are  apt  to 
measure  its  value  according  to  its  usefulness.  Though 
the  chemist  is  convinced  of  the  utility  of  his  projects, 
he  finds  not  infrequently  that  opposition  is  raised  to 
giving  them  a  practical  trial,  even  on  a  moderate 
experimental  scale,  until  he  has  secured  the  full  con- 
fidence of  his  directorate.  The  conservative  notion  of 
letting  well  alone  has  often  been  the  cause  of  a  well- 
founded  concern  falling  behind  in  the  face  of  com- 
petition. Yet,  he  should  not  be  disconcerted,  but 
rather  attempt  the  further  improvement  of  his  scheme 
in  the  hope  of  securing  the  reconsideration  of  it  at  a 
favourable  opportunity. 

Examples  of  the  influence  of  research  on  industrial 
progress  would  fill  many  volumes.  Among  those  most 
frequently  quoted  may  be  mentioned  the  synthetic 
preparation  of  dyestuffs  from  coal  tar.  The  discovery 
of  artificial  indigo  resulted  in  the  reduction  of  an 
acreage  cultivation  of  the  natural  indigo  from  755,900 
to  329,800,  i.e.  426,100  acres  in  two  years.  Soon  the 
industry  was  practically  transferred  from  India  to  Ger- 
many, the  price  of  the  artificial  product  being  eventually 
about  one-third  that  of  the  natural.  Similarly,  alizarin, 
which  was  prepared  from  madder — a  plant  largely 
grown  in  the  Levant,  in  France  and  in  various  parts  of 
Southern  Europe — has  been  replaced  by  the  manu- 
facture of  the  artificial  Turkey  Red  from  anthracene, 
which  is  obtained  by  the  fractional  distillation  of  coal- 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  151 

tar.  The  output  of  this  synthetic  dyestuff  is  about 
2000  tons  a  year  or  about  three  times  the  quantity 
previously  obtained  from  the  natural  source. 

Many  other  colours,  as  well  as  drugs,  disinfectants, 
fertilisers,  and  numerous  useful  chemicals  have  been 
derived  from  the  same  source — coal-tar. 

The  Report  of  Mr.  A.  P.  M.  Fleming  on  Industrial 
Research  in  the  United  States  of  America,  published 
in  1917  by  the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research,  affords  much  instructive  information  on  the 
subject.  From  this  Report  we  learn  that  the  General 
Electric  Company  spends  £80,000  to  £100,000  a  year  on 
a  research  staff  of  150,  mostly  mathematical  physicists ; 
that  Du  Pont  de  Nemours  &  Co.  employ  about  250 
chemists ;  that  the  American  Rolling  Mill  Company 
spend  £10,000  a  year  on  the  maintenance  of  a 
Research  Laboratory,  though  the  staff  numbers  only 
fifteen  ;  that  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
spend  about  £60,000  on  their  main  laboratory,  the  cost 
of  maintenance  being  about  £100,000  a  year,  repre- 
senting, however,  only  about  0-6  per  cent,  of  the  value 
of  the  material  examined  and  tested  ;  and  that  the 
Eastman  Kodak  Company  spends,  on  research, 
£30,000  a  year,  which  sum  represents  less  than  I  per 
cent,  of  the  profits  of  the  Company. 

We  may  also  remark  that  developments  on  such  a 
scale  have  largely  tended  to  attract  some  of  our  most 
promising  chemists  to  positions  overseas — no  less  than 
15  per  cent,  of  the  Fellows  and  Associates  of  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry,  though  not  all  of  them  engaged 
in  industry,  being  abroad  before  the  war. 

Few  British  firms  have  utilised  or  taken  advantage 
of  science  to  the  same  extent  as  the  German  or 
American.  Thus,  the  early  discoveries  in  dyes  tuffs 
made  in  this  country,  when  owing  to  the  shortsighted- 


152      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

ness  of  the  owners  of  works  due  precautions  had  not 
been  taken  to  protect  their  patent  rights,  were  de- 
veloped at  Crefeld,  with  the  result  that  our  products 
were  soon  ousted  through  competition  with  those 
from  Germany.  There  is  hope  for  the  future,  how- 
ever, and  we  may  mention,  as  examples,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  Colonial  Sugar  Refining  Company 
(Sydney)  spend  about  £20,000  a  year  on  their  scientific 
staff,  thereby  reaping  advantage  estimated  in  normal 
times  at  £75,000  to  £100,000  a  year  ;  and  Messrs. 
Tootal  Broadhurst,  Lee  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Cotton  Spinners, 
manufacturers  and  merchants  (Manchester),  have 
decided  to  set  aside  £10,000  a  year  for  five  years  for 
the  encouragement  of  research  and  education,  in 
addition  to  supporting  the  British  Cotton  Research 
Association. 

We  may  here  note  a  quotation  from  our  seventeenth- 
century  philosopher,  Sir  Thomas  Browne  :  "  When 
industry  builds  upon  Nature  we  may  expect  pyramids ; 
when  that  foundation  is  wanting,  the  structure  must 
be  low." 


Works  Control  Chemists. 

Chemists  should  be  selected  for  control  of  all  opera- 
tions dependent  on  chemical  science.  Their  training 
is  distinctly  a  training  in  the  "  law  and  order  "  of 
things,  and  fits  them  for  control  where  law  and  order 
are  essential  to  successful  working.  Just  as  in  a  com- 
mercial concern  certain  duties  are  deputed  to  a  manager 
and  a  staff  of  clerks,  so  highly  competent  chemists, 
in  direct  association  with  the  principals,  are  given 
authority  to  delegate  routine  chemical  work  to  trained 
lieutenants  in  various  departments.  Thus,  there  is 
intimate  co-operation  between  the  business  principals, 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  153 

the  chemists  on  the  works  and  the  chemists  in  the 
laboratories,  in  order  that  the  technical  and  commercial 
aspects  may  be  simultaneously  built  up  and  stimulate 
one  another. 

Chemists  engaged  on  the  works  are  required  to  be 
well  and  systematically  trained  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  their  science  generally,  but  they  are  often 
confronted  with  problems  lying  outside  the  ordinary 
academic  curriculum. 

The  following  schedule — which  is  the  syllabus  of  the 
examination  in  Chemical  Technology  prescribed  in  the 
Regulations  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry — indicates 
the  many  directions  in  which  the  work  of  such  chemists 
extends  :— 

(a)  The  application  of  well-known  chemical  and  physical 

laws  to  industrial  operations. 

(b)  The  development,  control,  and  transmission  of  power 

and  heat. 

(c)  A  working  knowledge  of  operations  and  plant,  of  which 

general  use  is  made  in  chemical  industry  for  the 
treatment  and  handling  of  materials,  finished  pro- 
ducts, waste  products  and  effluents,  including  a 
practical  acquaintance  with  fittings  and  stores. 

(d)  The  properties  of  materials  which  affect  their  applica- 

tion to  the  construction  of  plant  and  apparatus  in 
chemical  works. 

(e)  Some  ability  in  interpreting  drawings  of  plant  and  in 

making  rough  sketches. 

(/)  The  calculation  of  working  costs  and  a  general  know- 
ledge of  works  accounts. 

This  syllabus  was  formulated  after  careful  con- 
sideration by  a  Special  Committee  who  secured  in  the 
first  place  the  views  of  a  large  number  of  technologists 
of  wide  experience  in  chemical  industry.  A  brief  con- 
sideration of  each  section  should,  therefore,  prove 
useful. 


154     THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

(a)  The   application    of    well-known   chemical   and 
physical  laws  to  industrial  operations. 

In  many  works,  the  application  of  the  laws  of 
physics  are  no  less  important  than  those  of  chemistry. 
Often  the  success  of  a  process  depends  on  the  provision 
of  plant  the  construction  and  use  of  which  demands 
a  knowledge  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  Students 
who  intend  to  practise  in  industrial  chemistry  are,  there- 
fore, well  advised  if  they  take  courses  in  advanced 
Physics  as  well  as  in  Physical  Chemistry.  Preference 
is  given,  in  many  cases,  to  those  who  have  taken,  in 
addition,  courses  in  technology  bearing  on  the  industry 
concerned,  and  have  thereby  advanced  a  step  to- 
wards bridging  over  the  gap  between  academic  train- 
ing and  practical  experience.  The  influences  arising 
from  the  scale  of  the  operations,  and  the  factors  of 
time,  temperature,  pressure,  and  concentration  in 
large-scale  operations  should  all  be  regarded  as  matters 
for  constant  study  in  the  works.  The  main  point  of 
this  section  is  that  principles  must  be  understood  before 
it  is  possible  to  understand  processes  ;  hence  the  neces- 
sity for  a  broad  technical  training. 

(b)  The   development,    control,    and   transmission   of 
power  and  heat. 

Though  this  is  primarily  the  concern  of  the  engineer, 
the  control  chemist  should  have  a  useful  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  engineering.  The  extent  and  character 
of  such  knowledge  will  vary  according  to  the 
extent  and  character  of  the  works.  The  chemist 
should  study  the  practical  applications  of  the  laws  of 
heat  to  chemical  operations,  the  generation  of  heat  by 
combustion,  the  transference  of  heat  by  radiation, 
conduction,  and  convection,  the  transformation  of 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  155 

heat  into  other  forms  of  energy.  He  will  invariably 
find  it  a  great  advantage  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
construction  of  boilers  and  engines,  though  in  many 
works,  when  once  the  plant  is  in  working  order,  he  will 
probably  have  little  to  do  with  such  things  as  the  staff 
will  include  mechanics  well  able  to  attend  to  ordinary 
repairs  and  to  effect  minor  alterations. 

Many  industries  depend  in  a  large  measure  on  an 
efficient  supply  of  suitable  fuel.  The  quantity  must  be 
sufficient  to  allow  for  emergencies,  and  the  quality 
must  be  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The  chemist  should 
be  competent  to  appreciate  the  results  of  calorific 
tests  made  in  the  laboratory,  and  to  advise  on  the 
value  of  coal  and  coke.  He  should  understand  the 
methods  of  sampling  and  analysis  of  fuels  and  of  flue 
gases  and  the  significance  of  the  results  obtained. 
Again,  the  treatment  of  water  supplies  for  boiler 
purposes  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  involving  a 
knowledge  of  the  chemicals  employed  for  softening 
and  how  they  are  respectively  applied  on  the  large 
scale.  Due  regard  should  also  be  paid  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  utilising  waste  steam  :  for  instance,  for 
drying  purposes.  Economy  in  the  utilisation  of 
water  is  often  as  important  as  economy  in  the  use 
of  fuel.  Condensed  steam  from  boilers  is  frequently 
employed  in  manufacturing  operations. 

(c)  A  working  knowledge  of  operations  and  plant, 
of  which  general  use  is  made  in  chemical  industry  for  the 
treatment  and  handling  of  materials,  finished  products, 
waste  products  and  effluents,  including  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  fittings  and  stores. 

The  majority  of  productive  works  are  engaged  in 
transforming  raw  materials  into  finished  products. 
The  chemist  must,  of  course,  be  acquainted  with  the 


156      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

value  of  the  raw  materials  to  be  used,  and  should  know 
something  of  the  natural  distribution, of  such  materials 
— where  found  or  grown  and  how  produced. 

In  the  selection  of  a  site  for  the  establishment  of  a 
new  works  due  regard  must  be  paid  to  the  accessibility 
of  material,  and  to  the  means  for  distributing  the 
material  on  the  works  and  for  sending  out  the  finished 
products — proximity  of  railways,  canals,  and  rivers. 

As  machinery  in  an  increasing  degree  takes  the  place 
of  labour,  so  the  chemist  *  should  become  acquainted 
with  engines  and  the  plant  employed  in  manufacturing 
operations,  including  not  only  boilers  but  such  appara- 
tus as  pumps,  presses,  refrigerators,  cranes,  conveyors, 
and  so  forth,  and  he  should  be  able  to  supervise  in  a 
general' way  the  proper  disposition  of  such  apparatus 
and  ensure  its  maintenance  in  working  order. 

The  plant,  of  course,  varies  very  greatly  in  different 
industries,  and  may  include  such  as  is  necessary  for  the 
preparation  of  materials  by  breaking,  grinding,  pulp- 
ing, levigating,  washing,  steaming,  bleaching,  filtering, 
crystallising  ;  or  for  evaporation  or  desiccation  ;  or  it 
may  be'  for  processes  involving  electrolysis,  fusion,  or 
distillation,  or  refrigeration  ;  or  possibly  for  the  hand- 
ling of  large  volumes  of  gases  under  various  conditions 
of  temperature  and  pressure. 

The  chemist  should  lose  no  opportunity  of  gaining 
an  acquaintance  with  the  accessories  of  the  work 
generally.  The  value  of  his  services  will  increase  in 
proportion  to  his  understanding  of  the  whole  scheme. 
In  the  course  of  tune,  as  he  becomes  better  acquainted 
with  the  processes  involved,  he  learns  to  appreciate 
the  influence  of  scientific  method  on  large  scale  opera- 
tions and  the  difference  between  the  employment  of 
glass  beakers  and  tanks,  porcelain  basins  and  evapor- 
ating pans,  distilling  flasks  and  metal  stills,  funnels 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  157 

and  filter  presses  respectively.  He  learns  his  business, 
much  as  an  engineer  does,  by  practical  experience.  He 
should  not  be  too  fastidious  about  taking  off  his  coat 
and  making  his  hands  dirty.  He  may,  hi  emergencies, 
have  to  handle  implements  or  materials  personally,  or 
to  go  into  plant  to  inspect  its  inner  machinery ;  in 
fact  to  do  anything  that  the  workmen  under  him  are 
required  to  do.  He  should  aim  at  becoming  as  familiar 
with  any  part  of  the  plant  as  the  workers  who  are 
regularly  engaged  on  it ;  otherwise .  he  will  find  it 
difficult  to  control  those  under  him  and  to  instruct 
new-comers.  If  he  is  not  prepared,  at  any  time,  will- 
ingly to  take  a  part  in  the  hard  work  of  a  factory,  he 
will  be  well  advised  to  turn  his  attention  to  some  other 
branch  of  the  profession.  The  chemist,  moreover,  may 
be  required  to  advise  on  questions  of  ventilation,  to 
provide  safeguards  against  fire  and  explosions,  or 
against  poisoning  or  other  dangers,  such  as  injury  from 
dust  arising  from  grinding  processes ;  and  to  devise 
means  for  the  prevention  of  pollution  of  the  air  with 
noxious  gases  from  chimneys,  or  of  rivers  and  streams 
with  objectionable  waste  liquors  from  effluents.  He 
may  have  to  take  an  important  part  in  modifying 
existing  plant,  or  in  advising  on  the  construction  of  new 
plant  for  the  translation  of  a  laboratory  operation  into 
a  large-scale  operation.  Ability  to  advise  in  such 
matters  implies  the  faculties  of  initiative,  ingenuity 
and  resource,  combined  with  knowledge  of  technology 
to  be  attained  only  by  experience. 

tlis  ingenuity  may  need  to  be  exercised  in  the 
utilisation  of  products  hitherto  regarded  as  waste,  for 
it  may  be  possible  to  turn  to  profitable  account  what 
is  coming  from  the  chimneys  or  going  into  the  drains 
as  worthless.  The  waste  products  of  certain  industries 
are  the  bases  of  other  industries,  so  that  the  problem 


158      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

is  often  pursued  with  most  advantageous  results,  in 
some  cases  of  such  far-reaching  importance  that  a 
subsidiary  branch  may,  in  time,  even  supersede  in 
importance  the  initial  manufacture. 

(d)  The  properties  of  materials  which  affect  their 
application  to  the  construction  of  plant  and  apparatus  in 
chemical  works. 

The  bearing  of  this  part  of  the  syllabus  should  be 
obvious,  since  the  chemist  is  expected  to  be  acquainted 
with  the  possible  reactions  between  materials  of  con- 
struction of  vessels  or  piping  and  the  substances  they 
are  intended  to  contain  or  convey.  The  choice  of 
material  may  be  limited  on  this  account,  due  con- 
sideration being  given  to  the  relative  cost  of  various 
materials  resistant  to  such  reactions,  as  well  as  to 
the  size  of  the  vessels  and  their  general  adapta- 
bility to  requirements.  This  involves  some  knowledge 
of  the  current  prices  of  metals — iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
aluminium — and  of  wood  of  different  kinds,  glass, 
rubber,  and  other  materials.  The  physical  properties 
of  materials  of  construction — timber,  iron,  steel, 
masonry,  etc. — their  resistance  to  stress  and  strain, 
and  possibly  their  conductivity  of  heat  or  of  elec- 
tricity may  also  have  a  bearing  on  their  suitability 
for  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  used. 
The  methods  of  preserving  materials  against  weather- 
ing may  also  come  within  the  purview  of  the  chemist, 
who  should  know,  for  instance,  why  brick  is  often  to  be 
preferred  to  stone  in  factory  construction,  and  the 
objections  to  the  use  of  lime  from  magnesian  limestone 
in  the  mortar  employed. 

Science  often  destroys  or  renders  obsolete  the  things 
of  its  own  creation.  New  inventions  rapidly  effect 
great  changes  in  industry,  and  large  sums  may  be 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  159 

involved  in  any  new  step.  Thus,  the  introduction  of 
new  methods  may  render  obsolete  costly  plant  which 
must  be  scrapped,  unless  it  can  be  adapted  to  new 
conditions.  The  responsibility  of  the  chemist  in  such 
matters  may  be  very  great. 

(e)  Some  ability  in  interpreting  drawings  of  plant  and 
in  making  rough  sketches. 

To  be  able  to  make  a  sketch  of  a  proposed  structure 
or  piece  of  apparatus — large  or  small — giving  dimen- 
sions or  at  any  rate  a  fair  idea  of  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  'various  parts,  is  of  great  assistance 
in  explaining  requirements  to  engineers,  architects, 
apparatus  makers,  carpenters,  plumbers,  etc.  Simi- 
larly, to  be  able  to  interpret  plans  and  sectional  draw- 
ings prepared  to  scale,  and  to  visualise  the  finished 
structure  or  apparatus  is  of  importance  in  order  to 
avoid  making  subsequent  alterations. 

In  improvising  experimental  apparatus  and  half- 
scale  plant,  such  ability  is  invaluable.  It  necessi- 
tates sometimes  an  acquaintance  with  the  common 
engineering  terms,  many  of  which  with  other  useful 
information  can  be  obtained  by  taking  a  friendly 
interest  in  the  fitter's  shop  as  occasion  arises. 

(/)  The  calculation  of  working  costs  and  a  general 
knowledge  of  works  accounts. 

When  a  new  project  is  suggested,  the  chemist  should 
be  able  to  prepare  a  business-like  cost  sheet,  showing 
clearly  the  cost  of  the  materials  and  plant  required, 
the  cost  of  handling  and  manufacture,  and  the  value  of 
the  probable  output.  Without  it,  he  is  unlikely  to  be 
allowed  to  proceed  with  the  proposition.  It  must  be 
submitted  to  the  test  of  profit  and  loss.  The  economic 
side  of  the  business  cannot  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 


160      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

men  who  have  no  knowledge  of  matters  of  this 
kind. 

The  chemist,  in  his  training,  has  not  been  con- 
cerned with  values,  cost  of  material,  cost  of  labour,  and 
working  expenses.  He  is  given,  perhaps,  a  sample  of 
a  substance  containing  a  valuable  constituent  which 
can  be  extracted  profitably  on  a  small  scale.  He  must 
not  be  content  with  first  impressions  on  the  subject. 
The  process  proposed  may  be  quite  good,  but  the 
business  of  transporting  and  handling  material  and 
products  in  bulk,  the  disposal  of  by-products,  the 
utilisation  of  "  waste  "  and  a  host  of  other  questions 
must  be  solved  before  the  business  man  is  satisfied. 

Unless  the  works  are  run  at  a  profit,  they  are  not 
likely  to  run  for  long.  Besides  looking  constantly  for 
means  to  improve  the  processes  employed,  saving 
waste,  or  otherwise  perfecting  the  general  control  of 
his  part  of  the  work,  the  chemist  should  keep  careful 
records  of  the  progress  made.  If  the  process  is  such 
that  it  may  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  laboratory 
operation  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  he  should  be  able 
to  determine  whether  and  in  what  respect  the  result 
falls  short  of  what  should  be  expected — the  theoretical 
yield — and  may  find  in  this  problem  the  prospect  of 
referring  to  the  research  laboratory  investigations  of 
far-reaching  consequence.  The  checking  of  material 
and  the  tracing  of  losses  through  the  various  operations 
of  a  process  will  involve  careful  analytical  tests,  for 
which,  being  of  a  routine  character,  special  provision 
should,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  be  made  by 
setting  up  the  necessary  apparatus  as  a  permanent 
part  of  the  equipment  of  the  laboratory.  It  is  some- 
times found  advantageous  to  use  vessels  and  apparatus 
simulating — in  their  general  arrangement,  structure 
and  material — the  plant  used  on  the  large  scale,  and. 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  161 

in  such  cases,  ingenuity  is  needed  to  reproduce  the 
operations  of  the  works  on  a  small  scale.  The  reports 
of  the  laboratory  afford  all-important  guidance  in  the 
general  control  of  operations,  pointing  to  increased 
efficiency  in  output  and  economical  working. 

When  the  demand  for  a  product  is  constant,  the 
value  varies  according  to  competition,  competition 
according  to  the  cost  of  production,  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction according  to  the  cost  of  labour.  As,  however, 
the  demand  cannot  be  constant  for  an  indefinite  period, 
the  other  factors  must  vary  accordingly.  The  cost  of 
labour,  usually  the  ultimate  factor,  may  be  influenced 
by  the  introduction  of  new  means  whereby  labour  is 
superseded.  Unless,  therefore,  those  in  control  are 
constantly  on  the  alert  to  revise  their  system  of  work- 
ing, the  position  of  an  industrial  concern  in  relation  to 
its  competitors  may  speedily  be  affected.  It  may  lead, 
or  just  hold  its  position,  or,  under  lax  management,  it 
will  be  overtaken.  Everybody  and  everything  coming 
into  the  works  has  a  value  and  there  must  be  a  maxi- 
mum theoretical  return  to  be  aimed  at,  based  on 
scientific  as  well  as  business  data,  having  regard  to  all 
costs — raw  material,  fuel,  water,  labour,  general 
running  and  trading  expenses — in  their  relation  to  the 
value  of  the  products. 

Obviously,  then,  the  control  chemist  must  know  a 
good  deal  of  what  is  called  business  ;  we  do  not  suggest 
that  he  is  expected  to  be  a  bookkeeper,  but  he  should 
have  a  general  knowledge  of  commercial  arithmetic 
and  bookkeeping, 

In  fine,  so  varied  and  divergent  are  the  matters 
which  come  within  the  sphere  of  a  chemist  occupying 
a  managing  position,  that  he  cannot  afford  to  lose  any 
opportunity  of  gaining  experience  and  knowledge  of 
almost  anything  !  He  may  with  advantage  learn  some- 


162      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

thing  of  insurance  of  various  kinds,  political  economy 
and  taxation,  mercantile  law  (covering  such  matters 
as  contracts,  specifications,  partnerships),  company 
law,  and  patent  law,  with  any  of  which  he  may  in  the 
course  of  time  be  concerned.  Even  forty  years  ago,  a 
writer  in  the  Chemical  News1  expressed  the  view  that  a 
"  works  "  chemist  should  after  a  thorough  technical 
training,  including  "  volunteer  "  experience  of  two  or 
three  years  in  works,  make  himself  master  of  the 
differential  and  integral  calculus,  of  descriptive 
geometry,  mechanical  technology,  machine-making, 
architectural  planning,  and  designing  and  land  sur- 
veying ! 

It  is  hardly  possible,  of  course,  for  any  man  to  meet 
all  these  requirements  ;  but  under  proper  encourage- 
ment chemists  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  have  fully 
shown  their  ability  to  deal  with  emergencies  as  they 
arise,  and  have  thereby  become  firmly  incorporated  in 
the  concerns  to  which  they  are  attached.  Such  men 
are  essentially  practical,  possessing  the  faculty  of  doing 
things,  not  necessarily  in  the  best  way,  or  the  most 
expedient,  or  the  quickest,  but  the  most  reasonable  in 
the  circumstances,  while  they  are  conscious  of  their 
limits  and  know  when  to  call  in  more  expert  advice 
and  assistance. 

Chemists  newly  introduced  into  works  should  not 
always  be  expected  to  produce  immediate  results, 
though  it  is  true  that,  in  numerous  instances,  well- 
trained  men  have  by  their  work  and  advice  more  than 
saved  their  first  year's  or  several  years'  salary  within 
a  short  time  of  their  appointment.  With  careful 
selection,  the  manufacturer  can  make  no  sounder  in- 
vestment, but  the  result  is  largely  dependent  on  what 

1  See  Chemical  News,  Oct.  nth,  1878. 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  163 

he  is  prepared  to  invest.  The  chemist  has  also  made 
an  investment  :  his  education  and  training  have  been 
expensive,  and  he  should  be  afforded  a  definite  prospect 
of  obtaining  remuneration  commensurate  with  his 
outlay  and  the  value  of  his  work. 

Chemists  in  works  are  often  appointed  under  con- 
tract for  a  term  of  years  at  a  remuneration  increasing 
by  increments  at  stated  periods,  the  appointments 
being  renewable  at  the  end  of  a  term,  and  subsequent 
advancement  being  dependent  on  results  .achieved. 
Sometimes  it  is  stipulated  that  all  the  results  of  their 
work  for  the  time  being  become  the  property  of  the 
principals,  but  the  chemists  on  their  part  may  stipu- 
late for  a  share  in  the  profits  accruing,  both  during  and 
after  the  termination  of  the  period  of  appointment, 
from  inventions  or  improvements  introduced  by 
them.  The  latter  course  is  obviously  a  more  en- 
couraging arrangement  for  the  chemists. 

Where  a  concern  is  in  the  hands  of  employers  who 
do  not  properly  appreciate  the  value  of  scientific  con- 
trol, it  may  happen  that  they  will  look  for  a  paragon 
at  very  low  salary  and  expect  too  much  for  what  they 
offer.  Often  they  have  no  definite  views  as  to  the 
nature  or  the  value  of  the  service  they  expect  to  get, 
and  regard  a  chemist,  in  spite  of  his  technical  training, 
very  much  as  a  junior  clerk  required  for  the  office. 
The  remuneration  offered  in  such  case  will  attract  only 
men  of  mediocre  ability ;  failure  is  inevitable,  and 
the  distrust  of  scientific  men  is  engendered  ;  but  as 
the  control  of  productive  industries  passes  more  and 
more  to  scientific  men,  greater  discrimination  is  exer- 
cised in  the  selection  of  well-trained  men  and  more 
substantial  inducements  are  offered  to  secure  and 
retain  their  services. 

Frequently   the    success    or    failure    of    important 


164       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

operations  depends  entirely  on  the  knowledge  and  skill 
of  the  chemist  in  charge,  but  although  he  may  be 
responsible  for  operations  upon  which  large  financial 
interests  depend,  he  is  not  always  rewarded  on  a  com- 
mensurate scale.  In  all  these  matters,  however,  the 
personal  character  and  capacity  of  the  individual  are 
dominant  factors.  Some  manufacturers  are  apt  to 
regard  chemists  solely  as  analysts,  whilst  others  expect 
them  to  solve  with  ease  problems  of  great  technical 
difficulty. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  scientific  and  business 
ability  are  not  often  combined  in  the  same  individual ; 
but  if  a  careful  inspection  is  made  of  the  registers  of 
members  of  the  representative  chemical  bodies,  there 
will  be  found  a  high  proportion  of  them  who  have  made 
themselves  not  only  fully  cognisant  of  the  science 
underlying  the  concerns  to  which  they  are  attached, 
but  have  been  thoroughly  successful  as  men  of  affairs. 
Needless  to  say,  such  men  are  seldom  heard  complain- 
ing of  the  failures  of  our  industry  :  they  are  otherwise 
occupied. 

General  Considerations. 

When  an  industry  based  on  scientific  principles 
fails,  the  science  side  of  it  will  surely  be  blamed  ;  if  it 
succeeds,  the  business  side  of  it  will  as  surely  be 
praised.  Yet  such  industries  have  passed  from  one 
country  to  another  entirely  on  the  failure  of  business 
capacity  in  their  directorate.  The  proximity  of  the 
supply  of  suitable  raw  material  may  be  a  dominating 
factor ;  the  ill-considered  selection  of  a  site  may 
render  profitable  working  impossible  ;  but  the  want  of 
appreciation  of  suggested  improved  methods  or  apathy 
to  schemes  for  the  utilisation  of  waste  products,  not 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  165 

infrequently  contributes  to  failure.  The  main  demand 
is  for  competent  men  of  science  who  are  men  of  business 
to  whom  our  great  manufacturing  concerns  can  look 
to  enable  us  to  maintain  our  position  in  scientific 
industries.  There  is  always  a  demand  for  men  of  the 
right  stamp,  men  of  practical  ability,  initiative,  and 
energy,  and  capable  of  grasping  the  full  significance  of 
large-scale  operations.  When  once  they  have  estab- 
lished themselves  they  can  usually  find  success  in  an 
industrial  career.  Many  have  proved  themselves  to 
be  so  invaluable  that  they  have  become  managers  and 
directors,  and  thus  the  number  of  scientific  men  in 
control  of  industries  has  been  steadily  increasing 
during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  while,  as  a  con- 
sequence, there  is  a  feeling  of  greater  confidence 
between  manufacturers  and  their  chemists. 

It  has  sometimes  been  suggested  that  the  com- 
petency of  British  chemists  employed  in  industry  is 
inferior  to  that  of  foreign  chemists  ;  but  we  maintain 
that  although  they  have  been  deplorably  fewer  in 
number,  they  do  not  suffer  by  comparison  in  the 
standard  of  their  work,  or  in  their  initiative  in  dis- 
covery and  invention. 

In  Continental  works  where  many  chemists  are 
engaged,  the  majority  receive  lower  remuneration  than 
that  usually  paid  to  beginners  in  our  factories,  and  are 
dismissed  or  remain  in  the  rank  and  file  unless  they 
show  decided  promise.  Where  our  manufacturers 
employ  foremen,  the  German  manufacturers  more 
often  employ  chemists,  whose  technical  knowledge  is 
brought  to  bear  directly  on  practical  operations.  This 
system  is  justified  by  results  and  the  increased  cost  is 
but  small  in  comparison  with  the  results  obtained. 
The  education  and  training  of  the  chemists  should  give 
them  authority,  and  as  they  may  be  transferred  from 


166      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

one  department  to  another  they  not  infrequently 
devise  new  methods  or  improvements  in  the  processes 
under  their  control.  From  large  numbers,  there  is  a 
greater  chance  of  discovering  a  few  of  outstanding 
ability  who  are  promoted  and  rewarded  accordingly. 
If  the  ability  is  there,  it  will  find  opportunities  for 
development.  German  manufacturers  have  been  as 
successful  in  this  country  and  elsewhere  as  in  their  own  ; 
so  we  must  conclude  that  their  success  is  not  entirely 
due  to  the  natural  resources  of  Germany  or  to  the  lower 
cost  of  labour,  but  also  to  their  system  of  organisation. 

Even  in  the  strictly  commercial  departments  of 
manufacturing  concerns  considerable  advantage  may 
be  obtained  from  the  employment  of  men  who  can 
speak  with  some  authority  on  the  scientific  aspects  of 
the  business.  In  connection  with  chemical  products 
especially,  a  representative  possessing  technical  know- 
ledge can  better  understand  the  requirements  of 
customers,  and  may  be  instrumental  in  suggesting  new 
products  to  meet  such  requirements,  or  it  may  be  new 
uses  for  existing  products.  Foreign  competitors  have 
frequently  reaped  the  benefit  of  employing  chemists 
in  the  capacity  of  representatives,  so  that  they  may  be 
able  to  advise  users — of  dyestuffs,  for  instance — how  to 
manipulate  products  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  power  to  control  men  is  not  the  least  quality 
required  of  a  leader  in  industry.  He  should  have  a  keen 
sense  of  duty,  enthusiasm,  strength  of  will,  self- 
control  and  tact,  combined  with  organising  ability. 
The  real  leader  speedily  becomes  a  centre  of  opinion 
and  of  action. 

Success  is  dependent  on  abilities  of  different  stan- 
dards, those  of  capable  managers  and  capable  workers. 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  167 

In  the  matter  of  organisation  the  business  heads 
of  large  concerns  have  the  appointment  of  men  to 
control  the  main  and  subsidiary  departments.  The 
distribution  of  labour  can  only  be  entrusted  to  men 
who  are  thoroughly  capable  of  controlling  and  directing 
the  work. 

The  power  of  estimating  the  capacity  of  men  and 
women,  and  the  judgment  involved  in  making  the 
selection  of  workers,  are  among  the  rarest  of  gifts. 
However,  natural  adaptiveness  and  intelligent  applica- 
tion to  certain  forms  of  manual  labour  appear  to  be 
indigenous  to  certain  industrial  centres  ;  the  supply 
of  men  and  women  for  particular  industries,  there- 
fore, is  usually  to  be  relied  on.  Workers  who  are 
constantly  handling  a  material  acquire  an  instinctive 
knowledge  of  its  quality  within  certain  limits,  so  that, 
for  instance,  men  who  are  accustomed  to  work  in 
certain  metals  are  often  able  to  judge  their  general 
nature  from  mere  inspection,  just  as  an  experienced 
carpenter  becomes  a  connoisseur  of  different  kinds  of 
wood.  Similarly,  with  chemical  products  :  the  appear- 
ance, the  touch  and,  within  limits,  the  taste  and  smell 
of  a  substance  afford,  in  many  instances,  valuable 
indications  of  quality. 

In  operations  based  on  scientific  principles,  it  is  not 
expected  that  all  who  are  engaged  on  them  will  under- 
stand such  principles,  but  something  can  be  done  to 
arouse  their  interest  and  encourage  them  to  understand 
the  causes  and  effects  involved.  Young  workers  who 
are  capable  of  improvement  should  be  induced  to  attend 
classes  and  to  improve  their  minds.  Dissatisfaction 
not  infrequently  arises  among  the  least  competent, 
who  are  often  the  least  inclined  to  admit  their  short- 
comings ;  but  those  who  are  incapable  of  improvement 


168      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

are  usually  the  first  to  be  dismissed  when  a  reduction 
of  staff  becomes  necessary. 

The  prosperity  of  an  industry  is  often  very  largely 
dependent  on  the  existence  of  a  proper  understanding 
between  employer  and  employed.  Men  are  not 
machines  of  equal  calibre,  performing  just  so  much 
work  at  a  certain  rate ;  but  all  should  be  encouraged 
to  take  an  interest  in  their  work  and  to  do  their  best. 
This  is  only  possible  where  those  in  control  have  gained 
the  esteem  of  the  employees. 

We  are  not  concerned  here  with  the  disastrous 
influence  of  trade  disputes  on  industry,  but  from 
whichever  side  we  look  at  the  question,  whether  from 
that  of  the  employer  or  the  employed,  it  is  certain  that 
the  settlement  of  differences  often  depends  to  a  greater 
extent  on  tact  than  on  argument.  Our  view  is  that 
there  should  be  a  fair  wage  as  distinct  from  a  com- 
petitive wage  ;  but  we  hold  that  a  fair  wage  can  only 
be  really  fair  when  the  worker  is  unrestricted  in  his 
endeavours  to  do  his  best  and  is  paid  accordingly. 

In  many  cases  employers  have  promoted  the  im- 
provement of  the  conditions  of  living  by  providing 
housing  accommodation  and  catering  arrangements, 
and  have  encouraged  thrift  by  establishing  savings 
banks,  sick  clubs,  and  pension  schemes.  All  endeavours 
in  these  directions  conduce  to  the  happier  relations  of 
employers  and  employees,  and  should  make  for  mutual 
help  and  the  furtherance  of  a  loyal  interest  in  the 
general  advancement  of  the  common  cause. 

The  exigencies  of  war  have  brought  into  the  ranks  of 
labour  many — especially  women — who  were  formerly 
dependent  on  others  for  their  maintenance.  The 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  169 

altered  condition  of  affairs  should  make  for  industrial 
progress  in  the  future,  inasmuch  as  the  prosperity  of  a 
nation  is  proportionate  to  the  number  of  hands  and 
minds  usefully  employed  ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  varies 
as  the  number  of  the  producers  approaches  that  of  the 
consumers,  being,  dependent  on  the  earning  capacity 
of  the  people  of  all  classes.  Their  well-being,  therefore, 
depends  mainly  on  the  demands  for  labour  which  must 
depend  in  turn  on  capital,  and  the  initiative  and 
efficiency  of  the  management. 

Without  capital,  labour  cannot  find  employment  at 
all ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  while  shareholders 
look  for  the  regular  payment  of  dividends,  those  in 
control  have  to  supply  their  products  at  a  reasonable 
price,  in  the  face  of  competition,  having  due  regard  to 
the  importance  of  allotting  a  proportion  of  profits  to 
experiment  and  development. 

No  organisation  can  be  completely  successful  with- 
out leaders  of  initiative  and  enterprise.  Wherever 
there  are  such  leaders  there  will  be  followers  and  work 
in  plenty.  The  success  of  large  concerns  depends  on  the 
judgment,  knowledge,  and  experience  of  men  who  are 
prepared  to  take  risks  in  the  establishment  and  develop- 
ment of  their  industries.  They  have  constantly  to  watch 
the  variation  in  the  cost  of  material,  its  effect  en  the 
cost  of  manufacture  and  on  the  value  of  products — 
matters  lying  outside  the  knowledge  of  the  ordinary 
run  of  the  workers,  but  which  may  exercise  a  far- 
reaching  influence  on  their  welfare.  In  a  properly 
controlled  business  the  workers  feel  confidence  in 
being  assured  of  continuous  work,  and  they  should 
recognise,  therefore,  the  responsibilities  of  their 
employers  in  order  that  the  interests  of  both  should  be 
mutual. 

Recent  indications  of  a  desire  for  co-operation  in 


170      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

industrial  enterprise,  such  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Association  of  British  Chemical  Manufacturers,  point 
to  better  organisation  of  effort  and  also  to  a  general 
desire  to  render  the  country  capable  of  producing 
necessaries  for  which  we  should  be  independent  of 
possible  enemy  sources.  Individualism  and  competi- 
tion are  being  replaced  by  organisation,  as  are  also  the 
pooling  of  knowledge  and  business,  and  co-operation 
both  in  buying  materials  and  distributing  products. 
The  provision  of  useful  directories  of  manufacturers, 
of  adequate  bureaux  of  information,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Joint  Trade  Intelligence  Department  of 
the  Foreign  Office  and  the  Board  of  Trade,  should 
improve  official  knowledge  of  industries  and  tend  to 
increase  industrial  efficiency  generally.  If  the  spirit 
of  determination  which  has  pervaded  all  classes  during 
the  war  finds  a  corresponding  outlet  in  the  preparation 
of  our  youth  for  the  business  of  life  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  we  shall  be  able  to  face  competition  and 
maintain  our  national  prestige  in  the  future. 

Consulting  Technologists  and  Chemical  Engineers. 

Consulting  chemists  available  for  advice  on  techno- 
logical matters  have  usually  had  considerable  ex- 
perience in  industry  before  establishing  an  independent 
practice,  but  some  have  acquired,  as  an  adjunct  to 
an  analytical  practice,  special  experience  in  certain 
branches  of  manufacture.  Thus,  there  are  metallur- 
gists, assayers,  and  mining  chemists ;  fuel  and  gas 
technologists ;  specialists  in  refractory  materials, 
pottery,  porcelain,  glass,  cement  and  building  materials; 
technologists  concerned  with  petroleum  and  other  oils  ; 
chemists  devoting  special  attention  to  the  brewing, 
fermentation,  and  sugar  industries ;  and  chemical 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  171 

advisers  on  textiles,  paper,  rubber,  leather,  dyes, 
explosives,  and  so  forth.  We  have  in  this  country  a 
considerable  body  of  such  men  who  occupy  a  position 
analogous  to  specialists  in  other  professions,  and  may 
be  called  into  consultation  in  cases  of  difficulty,  to 
advise  on  new  projects,  or  to  revise  methods  of  work- 
ing, to  assist  in  matters  of  litigation  affecting  patents 
and  so  forth. 

A  periodical  overhauling  of  manufacturing  opera- 
tions by  men  of  the  highest  ability  and  experience  leads 
to  improvements  and  at  a  time  like  the  present  should 
form  part  of  the  preparation  for  the  commercial 
activity  and  competition  which  are  anticipated  with  the 
return  of  peace. 

It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry  is  forming  a  special  section  "  for  the  promo- 
tion and  study  of  chemical  engineering."  Attention  is 
to  be  given  to  chemical  engineering  research  and  the 
proper  training  of  chemical  engineers.  Steps  are  also 
being  taken  to  institute  Chemical  Engineering  courses 
in  several  Universities  and  Colleges. 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE 

PUBLIC  opinion  has  lately  been  roused  to  the 
necessity  for  including  among  our  legislators  and 
administrative  officials  a  greater  number  possessing  a 
knowledge  of  physical  science — of  the  principles  of 
chemistry,  physics,  mechanics,  and  allied  subjects. 
In  an  early  chapter  we  have  indicated  that  this  desider- 
atum is  likely  to  be  met  to  some  extent  by  the  intro- 
duction of  science  subjects,  hitherto  only  optional,  as 
compulsory  in  the  system  of  examinations  for  Class  I 
of  the  Home  Civil  Service,  the  marks  for  each  being 
allotted  on  an  equal  basis  with  the  classics. 

This  step  should  result  in  the  hit  reduction  of  more 
science  in  the  education  of  the  classes  from  whom  Civil 
Service  officials  are  drawn,  and  tend  to  promote  a 
higher  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  science  to  the 
state. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  although  a  few  great  states- 
men— notably  the  late  Lord  Salisbury — have  taken 
some  practical  interest  in  science,  with  the  exception 
of  Lord  Play  fair,  no  trained  professional  chemist 
has  attained  the  position  of  a  Cabinet  Minister 
in  the  British  Government,  and  very  few  have 
been  elected  to  Parliament.  Lack  of  knowledge  or 
even  of  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  science 
in  affairs  of  State,  in  peace  and  war,  has  been  held 
responsible  for  many  shortcomings. 

In  times  of  war,  measures  of  offence  and  defence 

170 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE          173 

dependent  on  science  can  be  met  only  with  science  ; 
due  provision  should  be  made  for  men  of  science  in  the 
administration,  as  well  as  in  the  field  and  in  the 
munitions  factory.  We  will  relate  in  our  concluding 
chapter  how  chemists  have  been  employed  with  the 
forces,  as  well  as  for  the  examination  of  food  and 
water  supplies,  to  deal  with  hygienic  matters,  and  to 
control  the  production  of  explosives  and  other  material 
of  war.  It  should  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  we  need 
administrators  who  know  that  substances  such  as 
cotton  and  fats  should,  if  possible,  be  prevented  from 
entering  an  enemy  country,  seeing  that  both  are 
urgently  required  in  the  production  of  explosives — 
cotton  to  be  nitrated  into  guncotton,  and  fats  as  a 
source  of  glycerine,  to  be  nitrated  into  nitroglycerine, 
which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordite,  dynamite 
and  other  blasting  explosives.  There  should  be  such  co- 
ordination among  the  Departments  that  administrators 
responsible  for  controlling  such  matters  should  have 
ready  access  to  the  necessary  scientific  advice  and  be 
able  to  apply  it  promptly. 

In  times  of  peace,  it  is  equally  necessary  that  legis- 
lators and  administrators  should  realise  the  vast  range 
of  questions  on  which  science  has  a  direct  bearing,  and 
the  extent  of  its  influence  on  the  productive  industries 
and  the  commerce  of  the  country.  In  the  economic 
struggle  with  which  all  the  world  will  soon  be  faced, 
the  possession  of  able  men  of  science  will  be  a  domi- 
nating factor,  only  a  due  appreciation  of  which  will 
enable  the  country  to  maintain  its  position  or  have  any 
chance  of  improving  it. 

If  science  were  better  represented  in  Parliament — 
possibly  through  the  Universities — as  well  as  in  the 
Civil  Service,  and  a  fuller  use  made  of  the  existing 
scientific  departments  and  institutions,  the  country 


174      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

would  undoubtedly  benefit  by  the  greater  recognition 
accorded  to  scientific  thought  and  method.  We  need 
both  statesmen  with  a  knowledge  of  fundamental 
scientific  principles  and  men  of  science  with  an  ac- 
quaintance with  economics :  at  present  both  are 
rare. 

It  is  not  intended  to  suggest  that  the  importance 
of  the  subject  has  been  altogether  ignored.  Enquiry 
will  show  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  definite 
provision  has  been  made  for  the  utilisation  of  highly 
trained  chemists  and  other  men  of  science  in  many 
departments. 

The  Government  Laboratory  was  originally  estab- 
lished in  1842  to  assist  the  Inland  Revenue  Authori- 
ties. At  that  time  the  prevalence  of  adulteration 
of  tobacco,  often  to  the  extent  of  50  per  cent., 
seriously  affected  the  Revenue,  and  the  Com- 
missioners with  the  aid  of  the  Laboratory  speedily 
checked  and  indeed  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  almost 
entirely  suppressed  the  practice.  The  importance  of 
this  work  will  be  readily  understood  when  we  mention 
that  in  normal  times  nearly  110,000,000  Ibs.  of  tobacco 
are  cleared  from  bond  annually,  representing  a  revenue 
of  over  £17,500,000  ;  to-day  the  amount  is  very 
much  greater.  Gradually  the  investigations  of  the 
Laboratory  have  been  extended  to  all  kinds  of  excis- 
able commodities  and  to  other  questions  affecting  the 
interests  of  the  Revenue,  special  attention  being  given 
to  brewing  materials. 

In  1858,  accommodation  was  found  for  the  Labora- 
tory in  the  western  portion  of  Somerset  House, 
and  its  operations  then  included  investigations  and 
analyses  for  all  other  Government  Departments 
requiring  chemical  advice  and  assistance. 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE  175 

"  Proof  Rooms  "  for  testing  the  alcoholic  strength  of 
spirits  were  attached  to  the  Customs  establishments 
towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  the  work 
of  these  was  increased  from  1856  by  the  operation  of 
the  sugar  duties,  and,  in  1862,  by  the  application  of 
alcoholic  standards  to  wines.  The  duty  on  imported 
spirits  was  assessed  solely  by  means  of  the  hydrometer 
until  1881,  but  as  rums  and  brandies  frequently  con- 
tained colouring  and  sweetening  matter,  the  true 
percentage  of  spirit  was  not  determined  by  that  means. 
Testing  by  distillation  was  therefore  introduced  with 
considerable  benefit  to  the  Customs  Revenue. 

In  1894,  the  Treasury  decided  to  place  the  two 
revenue  laboratories  under  one  chief,  and  erected  for 
the  purpose  the  building  in  Clement's  Inn  Passage, 
with  suitable  accommodation  for  the  largely  increased 
work  devolving  upon  the  Principal  Chemist  and  his 
staff. 

In  1911,  the  Department  of  the  Government  Chemist 
was  duly  constituted  as  a  distinct  department  having  a 
separate  Parliamentary  Vote.  It  is  available,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  to  all  other  departments  re- 
quiring chemical  services,  and  controls  laboratories  at 
Clement's  Inn  Passage,  at  the  Customs  House,  and  in 
Chemical  Testing  Stations  situated  in  various  ports 
and  inland  centres. 

The  duties  of  the  staff  include  the  analysis  of 
samples  in  connection  with  the  Assessment  of  Revenue 
and  Drawbacks ;  the  analysis  of  samples  of  stores 
supplied  to  Government  Departments  on  tender  and 
on  contract ;  of  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  other  agricul- 
tural produce  for  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
Fisheries ;  and  of  samples  referred  by  magistrates 
under  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts.  Beverages  of 
a  non-alcoholic  character,  such  as  cider  and  perry,  are 


176      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

also  examined  in  the  interests  of  industry  to  detect 
infringement  of  the  Merchandise  Marks  Act,  and 
samples  of  "  patent  medicines  "  are  examined  under 
the  Medicine  Stamp  Acts.  During  the  war,  many 
thousands  of  samples  of  foodstuffs  and  other  supplies 
have  been  analysed  for  the  War  Department,  afford- 
ing a  useful  check  on  the  supplies  of  contractors,  both 
in  the  interests  of  the  health  of  the  forces  and  of  the 
Exchequer.  The  total  number  of  samples  examined 
by  the  Department  approaches  400,000  annually. 

The  permanent  staff  of  the  Laboratory  consists  of 
the  Government  Chemist,  the  Deputy  Government 
Chemist,  four  Superintending  Analysts,  and  twenty- 
one  analysts  divided  into  two  classes — all  pensionable 
officers.  There  is  also  a  large  staff  of  tempo- 
rary assistants,  composed  partly  of  revenue  assistants 
lent  by  the  Customs  and  Excise,  engaged  on  chemical 
work  connected  with  the  Revenue  service,  and  others 
appointed  by  the  Government  Chemist.  For  these 
appointments  the  possession  of  the  Fellowship  or 
Associate  ship  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  is  regarded 
as  a  qualification  of  the  first  importance.  Promotions 
to  the  position  of  Second-Class  Analyst  on  the  per- 
manent staff  are  made  on  the  results  of  a  competitive 
examination  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  of 
candidates  nominated  by  the  Government  Chemist. 

Other  Departments  have  laboratories  for  special 
purposes. 

The  Admiralty  Chemist's  Department  at  Ports- 
mouth Dockyard  is  mainly  concerned  with  chemical 
matters  arising  in  connection  with  naval  construction. 
etc.  The  Admiralty  has  also  its  duly  appointed 
advisers  on  technical  subjects,  for  instance,  petroleum  ; 
and  there  are  Professors  of  Chemistry  in  the  Naval 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE  177 

Colleges,  as  well  as  chemists  engaged  as  Inspectors  of 
Victualling  Stores. 

The  War  Office  has  its  scientific  advisers,  and  Pro- 
fessors of  Chemistry  are  attached  to  the  Ordnance 
College,  Royal  Army  Medical  College,  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Sandhurst,  Wellington,  etc.  Chemists  are 
engaged  in  large  numbers  under  the  Ministry  of 
Munitions,  for  research  and  inspection  work,  as  well  as 
for  the  supervision  of  the  manufacture  of  war  material 
at  arsenals,  factories,  and  controlled  establishments. 
Chemists  are  also  attached  to  the  Royal  Air  Force,  to 
the  Aircraft  Factories,  Aeronautical  Inspection 
Department,  etc. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  is  concerned  with  the 
administration  of  the  Fertilisers  and  Feeding  Stuffs 
Act,  and  also  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  in  their 
relation  to  agricultural  produce.  The  Government 
Chemist  is  ex  officio  Chief  Agricultural  Analyst,  whilst 
all  County  Councils  and  many  boroughs  have  their 
official  agricultural  analysts  in  connection  with  the 
above  Acts  (see  pp.  no  et  seq.). 

The  Home  Office  has  its  duly  appointed  official 
analysts,  whose  services  are  called  upon  in  connection 
with  the  investigation  of  crime,  and  chemical  advisers 
on  explosives,  petroleum,  and  matters  arising  in  con- 
nection with  the  administration  of  the  Factory  Acts, 
etc. 

The  Local  Government  Boards  are  responsible  for 
the  administration  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts, 
involving  the  confirmation  or  vetoing  of  appointments 
of  the  Public  Analysts  to  the  counties  and  boroughs 
(see  pp.  no  et  seq.).  The  Board  for  England  and  Wales 
possesses  a  laboratory  attached  to  the  Department  of 
the  Inspector  of  Foods.  The  Local  Government  Boards 
are  also  concerned  in  the  administration  of  the  Alkali, 


178      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

etc.,  Works  Regulation  Acts,  1881-1906,  under  which 
chemists  are  engaged  as  inspectors  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Acts. 

The  Board  of  Trade  appoints  the  Gas  Referees  under 
the  Metropolitan  Gas  Acts,  and  has  the  advice  and 
assistance  of  chemists  both  at  the  Patent  Office  and  in 
the  Commercial  Intelligence  Department. 

Chemists  are  also  appointed  as  assayers  to  the  Royal 
Mint,  the  Bank  of  England,  and  the  Assay  Offices. 

The  London  County  Council  has  a  chemical  staff  for 
investigations  on  behalf  of  its  many  departments  and 
for  gas  testing. 

We  would  protest,  however,  that  the  importance  to 
this  country  of  the  technical  work  of  chemists  in  the 
Civil  and  Public  Services  is  not  sufficiently  realised,  and 
that  the  remuneration  and  conditions  attaching  to  the 
appointments  have  not  in  the  past  afforded  a  satis- 
factory prospect.  There  may,  perhaps,  be  compensations 
in  the  way  of  reasonable  working  hours  and  holidays — 
though  even  these  have  not  been  possible  in  recent  times 
— and  a  pension  if  the  Fates  are  kind ;  but  the  pay  has 
not  been  adequate  and  promotion  cannot  always  be 
reckoned  upon,  for  the  ways  of  Government  are  un- 
certain, and  a  chemist  on  the  point  of  succeeding  to 
a  higher  office,  which  he  has  long  had  in  view  as  the 
reasonable  height  of  his  ambition,  may  find  his  hopes 
frustrated  by  some  rearrangement  under  which  he  finds 
himself  answerable  to  a  new  official,  possibly  not  even  a 
member  of  his  profession. 

A  change  of  attitude,  on  the  part  of  the  Government, 
with  regard  to  these  matters  is  seriously  called  for,  and 
the  Council  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  have  recently 
formulated  and  forwarded  to  all  Government  Depart- 
ments concerned  a  carefully  prepared  statement 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE  179 

suggesting  a  definite  scheme  of  organisation  for  the 
Government  Chemical  Service,  which  it  is  hoped  may 
be  adopted  in  due  course.1 

In  this  statement  the  Council  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  time  is  opportune  for  taking  steps  to 
secure  for  the  profession  of  chemistry  a  position  corre- 
sponding to  that  occupied  by  other  learned  professions, 
and  their  view  that  much  would  be  accomplished  towards 
the  attainment  of  that  aim  if,  in  the  first  place,  adequate 
and  uniform  conditions  of  appointment  were  accorded 
to  chemists  directly  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  State. 

The  necessity  for  a  definitely  organised  Chemical 
Service  (both  in  peace  and  war)  for  all  purposes  of  the 
State  on  which  the  science  of  chemistry  has  a  bearing 
has  long  been  recognised  in  the  chemical  profession, 
and  representations  have  been  made  from  time  to 
time  to  ministers  of  State,  Government  Commissions 
and  other  public  authorities.  As  an  example,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that,  as  the  result  of  representations 
made  by  the  Institute,  the  qualifications  for  appoint- 
ment of  public  analysts  under  the  Sale  of  Food  and 
Drugs  Acts  have  been  determined  by  Regulations 
framed  by  the  Local  Government  Boards  for  England 
and  Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  under  which  the 
country  has  undoubtedly  secured,  as  we  have  already 
indicated,  the  services  of  a  body  of  chemists  highly 
qualified  in  that  branch  of  work. 

We  have  pointed  out  also  that  the  Department  of 
the  Government  Chemist  has  been  organised  under  a 
separate  Treasury  vote.  Other  departmental  chemical 
establishments,  however,  have  not  been  brought  into 
line,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  position  of  chemists 
in  the  Government  service  generally  is  sufficiently 
understood  and  appreciated  to  obtain  for  them  that 

1  Proceedings  of  the  Institute,  Part  IV,  1918. 


i8o      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

measure  of  recognition  which  should  be  accorded  to 
professional  men  of  this  type  in  the  interests  of  the 
safety  and  well-being  of  the  State. 

"  A  List  of  Official  Chemical  Appointments  "  issued 
periodically  by  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  contains 
information  with  regard  to  the  majority  of  these  and 
other  positions  held  by  chemists  in  the  Government 
and  Municipal  Services,  both  at  home  and  in  the  over- 
seas dominions  of  the  Empire.  The  publication  has 
been  temporarily  discontinued,  but  new  editions  will 
be  forthcoming  when  normal  conditions  are  restored. 

Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  interest  of  the 
Government  in  science  was  evinced  by  the  assistance 
given  from  the  public  funds  to  the  dye  and  other 
industries  ;  and,  later,  by  the  vote  of  a  grant  in  Parlia- 
ment in  aid  of  scientific  and  industrial  research,  and  by 
the  appointment  of  a  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
and  an  Advisory  Council  for  the  organisation  and  de- 
velopment of  a  scheme  for  the  administration  of  the 
grant.  The  Department  has  now  been  formally  incorpor- 
ated under  Royal  Charter  for  this  purpose.  Such  action 
should  prove  a  direct  stimulus  to  British  industry  and 
should  induce  manufacturers  to  encourage  the  further 
prosecution  of  research  by  chemists  employed  in  their 
own  works. 

The  Government  has  learned  lately,  and  the  lesson 
must  not  be  forgotten,  that  in  a  number  of  industries 
which  we  were  previously  content  to  leave  to  others,  we 
must  render  ourselves  self-contained  and  independent. 
Often  in  the  past  there  has  been  a  lack  of  information 
about  our  own  natural  resources,  and  too  little  considera- 
tion given  to  the  fact  that  the  importation  of  a  slightly 
cheaper  foreign  article  means  loss  of  employment  to  our 
own  workers.  To  remedy  these  shortcomings,  chemists 


CHEMISTRY  AND  THE  STATE  181 

had  to  a  large  extent  to  prepare  the  way,  while  manu- 
facturers had  to  be  sought  who  were  willing  to  establish 
new  industries.  For  example,  it  was  found  that  the 
shortage  of  suitable  laboratory  apparatus  and  other 
requirements  was  a  cause  of  anxiety,  particularly  in 
industries  concerned  with  the  supply  of  armaments  and 
munitions.  Glass  and  porcelain  apparatus,  filter  paper 
and  even  fairly  common  analytical  reagents — all 
essential  to  industry — had  hitherto  been  imported 
from  abroad,  and  mainly  from  Germany  and  Austria. 
With  regard  to  reagents,  the  Councils  of  the  Institute 
of  Chemistry  and  the  Society  of  Public  Analysts 
prepared  and  published  a  list  of  standards  and  tests 
forming  a  guide  to  the  requirements  of  chemists  in  this 
direction,  and  there  was  no  lack  of  enterprise  on  the 
part  of  the  manufacturers,  who  were  soon  able  to 
supply  satisfactory  products.  Filter  paper,  too, 
manufactured  under  scientific  control,  was  forth- 
coming at  an  early  stage,  fully  equal  if  not  superior  to 
any  previously  imported.  Porcelain  for  laboratory 
purposes,  a  much  more  difficult  problem,  was  investi- 
gated by  several  leading  firms  who  have  steadily  im- 
proved their  products,  which  we  may  hope  will  take 
the  place  of  those  hitherto  obtained  from  Berlin. 
Different  varieties  of  glass,  for  laboratory  purposes, 
for  pharmaceutical  and  medical  use,  for  X-ray 
apparatus,  for  miners'  lamps  and  other  purposes,  and 
also  of  optical  glass,  were  urgently  needed.  In  this 
matter  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  supported  in  the 
course  of  time  by  grants  from  the  Department  of 
Scientific  and  Industrial  Research,  largely  assisted  in 
overcoming  the  difficulty.  A  series  of  formulas  was 
devised  by  Sir  Herbert  Jackson,  working  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  Special  Committee  appointed  by  the 
Institute  ;  and  under  the  ultimate  organisation  of  the 


i8z      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Department  of  Optical  Munitions  and  Glassware 
Supply,  these  formulas  were  entrusted  tc  reliable 
manufacturers  with  whose  co-operation  the  country 
has  been  reasonably  able  to  supply  its  own  needs  in  all 
ordinary  forms  of  laboratory  glass  apparatus  and  in 
many  other  respects. 

Other  "  key  "  industries  could  be  cited,  but  we  have 
noted  these  as  examples  and  as  indicating  some 
matters  in  which  the  Government  has  recently  shown 
interest. 

The  Report  of  the  Government  Committee  on  Com- 
mercial and  Industrial  Policy  (1918)  states  that  "  war 
requirements  have  enormously  increased  our  pro- 
ductive capacity  in  certain  great  branches  of  industry, 
notably  in  the  steel  and  chemical  trades,  and  in 
numerous  directions  British  manufacturers  have 
shown  much  adaptability  and  resourcefulness." 


TEACHING 

TOWARDS  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  teaching  of  chemistry  in  Universities  and 
Colleges  was  mainly  of  an  elementary'  character. 
There  were  few  students  taking  a  systematic  training 
in  chemistry  and  consequently  few  chemists.  It  was 
usual,  alike  for  professors  and  practitioners,  to  under- 
take both  teaching  and  practice  :  professors  more 
commonly  than  now  held  appointments  as  consultants 
and  some  acted  as  public  analysts ;  private  practitioners, 
in  most  cases,  took  articled  pupils.  When  the  facilities 
for  obtaining  instruction  became  greater  and  the 
profession  increased  in  numbers  and  activity,  this 
overlapping  of  work  led  to  controversy  ;  but,  in  the 
course  of  time,  the  educational  work  of  the  teachers 
increased  and  the  tendency  of  practitioners  to  take 
pupils,  except  for  special  training,  decreased  ;  so  that 
a  better  understanding  arose  with  regard  to  the  two 
spheres  of  work. 

We  will  not  attempt  to  deal  more  than  briefly  with 
the  art  of  teaching.  As  the  chemist  who  wishes  to 
follow  this  branch  has  himself  been  through  the  pro- 
cess of  being  taught,  he  may  be  assumed  to  know  a 
good  deal  about  it  when  he  starts  on  his  career  ;  but, 
to  be  consistent  in  our  scheme  of  considering  the 
various  branches  of  work  open  to  the  chemist,  we  will 
venture  a  few  remarks  on  what  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  difficult. 

The  methods   of   teaching   science   or  indeed   any 

183 


184      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

subject  are  not  fixed.  Every  student  appears  to 
require  individual  treatment  and  every  teacher  is  met 
with  the  difficulty  of  finding  the  best  way  of  bringing 
out  the  best  that  is  in  his  students. 

On  the  personal  characteristics  necessary  to  a  teacher 
— enthusiasm,  patience,  and  tact — we  do  not  feel  called 
upon  to  dilate.  Those  who  do  not  possess  them  in  the 
necessary  degree  will  probably  be  the  first  to  recognise 
the  advisability  of  turning  to  another  branch  of  work. 

Chemistry  as  a  subject  affords  endless  possibilities 
of  arousing  interest  both  by  practical  demonstration 
and  by  illustrating  the  application  of  its  principles 
to  the  affairs  of  everyday  life — healih,  industry, 
commerce,  and  the  State.  Students  have  to  be 
trained,  not  only  in  the  methods  of  conducting  experi- 
ments, but  in  observation  and  the  interpretation  of 
results,  and  in  the  wider  meaning  of  the  work — how  it 
may  be  applied  to  practical  purposes.  The  spirit  of 
enquiry  must  be  maintained  from  the  beginning  if  the 
student  is  to  be  an  investigator  or  something  more 
than  a  routine  worker. 

It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that  not  a  few  chemists  show 
evidence  of  having  suffered  in  their  youth  and  in- 
experience from  accidents  in  the  laboratory,  and  we 
feel,  therefore,  it  should  not  be  out  of  place  to  suggest 
that  students  should  be  warned  of  the  risks  of  handling 
dangerous  substances  before  they  are  left  to  their  own 
devices.  The  careless  handling  of  a  bottle  of  sulphuric 
acid  has  caused  the  stopper  to  jump  and  the  liquid  to 
spurt  so  as  to  deprive  a  boy  permanently  of  the  sight  of 
an  eye  ;  a  retarded  action  in  a  test  tube  held  above  the 
level  of  the  head  has  produced  the  same  unfortunate  re- 
sult. Burns,  arising  from  thoughtless  handling  of  highly 
volatile  and  combustible  substances,  and  cuts,  from 
injudicious  performances  with  cork  borers  and  glass 


TEACHING  185 

tubing,  are  far  too  common  incidents  of  the  laboratory, 
and  such  disasters  are  apt  to  have  far-reaching  after- 
effects, apart  from  the  accompanying  damage  to  in- 
struments and  property.  Students  should  also  be 
taught  something  of  the  value  of  materials  and  to  have 
a  respect  for  scientific  instruments  with  which  they  are 
entrusted. 

The  teacher,  quite  as  much  as  the  practitioner, 
finds  that  he  must  keep  in  touch  as  far  as  possible  with 
current  theory  and  practice,  and  constantly  revise  his 
courses  accordingly.  One  of  his  functions  is  to  advise 
students  on  the  use  of  books  both  for  theory  and 
practical  work,  so  that  they  may  seek  for  themselves 
the  information  bearing  on  the  problems  before  them 
and  determine  and  apply  the  methods  to  be  adopted. 
He  should  be  on  the  watch  for  new  literature ;  indeed, 
students  and  chemists  generally  would  find  progress 
very  difficult  without  access  to  standard  works  of 
reference. 

The  teacher,  moreover,  if  he  is  a  student  of  human 
nature,  is  afforded  exceptional  opportunities  of  pur- 
suing that  alluring  subject ;  for  not  only  is  chemistry 
to  be  taught  to  those  who  intend  to  be  chemists,  but  in 
a  lesser  degree  to  engineering  and  medical  students, 
and  many  others  ;  so  that  he  must  acquire  in  the 
course  of  years  a  wide  interest  in  human  intellectual 
progress.  The  practical  nature  of  his  subject  neces- 
sarily brings  him  into  close  relation  individually  with 
those  who  are  specially  drawn  to  it.  He  will  mark 
their  different  temperaments,  finding  some  students 
casual  and  disinclined  to  bestir  themselves  while 
others  are  industrious  and  cover  the  ground  quickly. 
Yet  the  latter  are  not  always  the  more  successful : 
in  some  students  the  knowledge  attained  is  but 
superficial ;  in  others,  perhaps  slower,  it  is  more 


i86      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

thoroughly  assimilated.  He  will  endeavour  to  under- 
stand these  dispositions  and  to  make  allowances  for 
initiative  and  spontaneity,  especially  in  the  later  stages 
of  training.  By  maintaining  a  personal  interest  in  his 
students,  he  can  better  advise  them  as  to  their  future 
and  often  place  them  to  advantage. 

The  junior  teacher  who  hopes  to  give  advanced 
instruction  in  his  subject  is  fortunate  if  he  secures 
a  demonstratorship  in  a  University  or  College,  from 
which,  if  he  is  capable,  he  may  proceed  to  a  higher 
appointment.  His  chances  of  success  are  improved  if 
he  shows  aptitude  for  research  and  obtains  a  doctorate 
degree.  He  may  eventually  reach  a  Professorship,  but 
the  number  of  senior  appointments  has  hitherto  been 
too  limited  to  afford  a  satisfactory  prospect,  except  to 
men  of  outstanding  ability.  Few  Professors  of  Chemistry 
receive  a  stipend  of  more  than  £1000  a  year,  and 
though  their  salaries  may  be  supplemented  by  examiner- 
ships  and  literary  work,  such  work  is  arduous  and 
hardly  to  be  relied  on  as  a  regular  source  of  income. 
A  great  deal  of  gratuitous  work  in  the  public  interest 
is  expected  of  and  rendered  by  chemists  occupying 
such  positions  :  much  of  their  tune  is  given  to  matters 
of  educational  organisation  and  the  administrative 
affairs  of  their  institutions. 

Where  technological  instruction  is  required,  particu- 
larly in  Universities  and  Colleges  in  industrial  centres, 
there  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  require  evidence  of 
practical  experience  in  industry.  It  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  chemists  with  such  experience  will  be 
attracted  to  teaching,  however,  unless  the  prospects 
are  comparable  with  those  in  industry. 

The  appointments  of  masters  for  giving  instruction 
in  general  science,  in  public,  secondary  and  private 
schools,  are,  of  course,  very  numerous,  and  many 


TEACHING  187 

chemists  have  followed  this  branch  of  work  through 
lack  of  opportunities  in  other  directions.  From  a 
chemist's  point  of  view  teaching  has  been  probably 
the  least  remunerative  branch  of  the  profession  ;  yet, 
in  the  past,  a  very  large  proportion  of  graduates  in 
science  have  become  teachers  in  schools,  seldom 
having  the  opportunity  of  taking  pupils  beyond  the 
standard  required  for  the  University  Intermediate 
Examinations,  and  in  most  cases  not  beyond  that 
required  for  Matriculation. 

The  criticism  levelled  at  our  science  masters  in 
schools  is  that  they  are  inclined  to  impart  knowledge 
without  indicating  its  usefulness,  so  that  its  con- 
nection with  the  realities  of  life  is  not  fully  appre- 
ciated. This  criticism  is  probably  well  founded  in  the 
case  of  many  who  teach  general  science,  but  not  in 
that  of  the  teacher  who  is  enthusiastically  devoted  to 
his  own  particular  subject.  , 

It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  the  teaching  in 
Secondary  Schools  is  so  good,  seeing  that  the  salaries 
of  the  teachers  are  generally  inadequate  and  their 
duties  so  burdensome  that  they  have  no  time  for 
research  or  other  work.  The  prospects  of  the  average 
science  master  were  in  pre-war  times  commonly  limited 
to  an  income  of  about  £300  per  annum,  which  hardly 
warranted  his  University  training  ;  the  teacher  in  a 
technical  school  might  become  head  of  a  department 
at  £400  to  £500  a  year  ;  in  a  secondary  school,  even  if 
he  were  able  to  take  classes  in  several  subjects,  he 
would  not  usually  receive  so  much. 

Municipal  bodies  have  spent  large  sums  on  imposing 
buildings  for  their  technical  institutions,  but  in  many 
cases  have  been  disinclined  to  disburse  with  the  same 
free  hand  on  their  equipment  or  on  the  salaries  of  the 
staffs  engaged  for  them. 


i88     THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

The  great  defect  of  a  teaching  career,  regarded 
generally,  therefore,  has  been  the  poverty  of  the  out- 
look ;  but  there  is  good  reason  to  hope  that  recent 
agitation  for  further  and  improved  teaching  in  science 
will  tend  to  improve  the  conditions,  and  that  this 
important  branch  of  work  will  thereby  become  more 
attractive* 


WOMEN  IN  PROFESSIONAL  CHEMISTRY 

THE  Institute  of  Chemistry  was  one  of  the  first 
of  the  Chartered  professional  bodies  to  admit 
women  to  the  qualifying  examinations,  the  first 
woman  successful  in  passing  the  examination  for  the 
Associate  ship  having  been  elected  in  1892.  Since  then 
about  thirty  have  qualified  for  A.I.C.  and  F.I.C. 
Many  women,  however,  have  taken  science  degrees, 
including  chemistry,  at  the  Universities  and  several 
have  attained  considerable  recognition  as  teachers 
and  as  research  chemists,  while  others  have  been 
successful  in  scientific  journalism.  Some,  indeed, 
have  shown  marked  manipulative  skill,  but,  under 
normal  conditions,  there  has  not  been  hitherto  a  wide 
scope  for  women  in  professional  practice.  During  the 
war,  however,  a  considerable  number  of  women 
chemists,  in  most  cases  teachers,  have  successfully 
taken  the  places  of  men  serving  with  the  forces  or  have 
been  engaged  on  special  work  not  usually  required  in 
times  of  peace.  For  those  who  are  distinctly  capable, 
there  will  probably  be  more  appointments  in  the  future, 
as  assistants  to  consultants,  or  in  industrial  laboratories, 
in  the  latter  especially,  as  it  appears  likely  that  their 
brethren  will  find  increasing  scope  for  their  knowledge 
and  ability  in  the  control  of  operations  in  the  works. 
The  remuneration  of  women  chemists  will  depend  to  a 
great  extent  on  their  general  ability  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  requirements  of  the  positions  to  which 
they  attain. 

189 


CHEMISTS  IN  WAR1 

OWING  to  the  conditions  of  modern  warfare 
chemists  have  been  more  than  ever  in  request. 
To  give  a  full  account  of  their  work,  if  it  were  possible, 
would  be  imprudent,  but  it  is  well  to  place  on  record 
a  statement  confined  to  what  it  is  permissible  to  relate, 
giving  some  indication  of  the  importance  of  the  pro- 
fession of  chemistry  to  the  nation  in  recent  times.  It 
may  be  doubted  if  the  general  community  realises  that 
the  chemist  plays  a  part  in  the  production  of  all  iron, 
steel,  copper,  and  other  metal,  of  every  explosive,  of 
cloth,  leather,  rubber,  glass,  and  material  of  war 
generally,  and  that  his  help  is  no  less  necessary  in 
connection  with  the  supplies  of  food,  pure  water  and 
medicine. 

During  the  war  the  Government  secured  the  guidance 
of  chemists  and  other  men  of  science  to  assist  in  the  in- 
vestigation of  suggestions  and  inventions  and  to  bring 
their  knowledge  and  experience  to  bear  on  measures 
and  devices  of  offence  and  defence,  while  apart  from 
those  acting  in  an  advisory  capacity,  chemists  were 
called  for  service  in  the  field  as  well  as  in  the 
factory.  In  such  times  there  is  a  demand  for  the 
solution  of  problems  of  an  unusual  character  which  can 
only  be  entrusted  to  men  of  the  highest  scientific 
training,  with  initiative  and  foresight. 

So  much  had  we  come  to  rely  on  foreign  sources  of 

1  Reprinted  and  modified,  with  slight  additions,  from  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry,  Part  I,  1917- 

190 


CHEMISTS  IN  WAR  191 

supply  for  many  of  our  needs,  that  means  had  to  be 
found  for  dealing  promptly  and  efficiently  with  diffi- 
culties some  of  which,  unless  overcome,  threatened 
serious  disaster.  The  chemists  of  the  country  were  not 
found  wanting. 

The  laboratories  of  our  universities  and  colleges 
became  small  factories  for  the  preparation  of  drugs 
and  medicaments,  and  many  institutions  were  en- 
trusted with  the  examination  of  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  explosives.  The  measures  taken  in 
this  emergency  secured  uniformity  in  method  and  the 
standardisation  of  processes  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  difficult  to  attain.  Under  the  supervision 
of  their  professors,  students  unfit  for  service  with  the 
colours  were  thus  helping  the  country  and  at  the  same 
time  gaining  useful  experience. 

More  than  a  thousand  chemists  were  engaged 
to  assist  in  the  laboratories  and  in  the  works  of 
Government  and  controlled  establishments  supplying 
armaments,  munitions,  and  other  materials  of  war. 
Many  of  these  found  an  opportunity  of  helping 
the  country,  through  the  registers  maintained  by  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  and  other  societies  for  this 
purpose.  In  cases  where  the  number  of  men  having 
technical  experience  in  some  branches  was  limited, 
the  authorities  made  arrangements  for  probationary 
training,  so  that  their  services  should  be  available 
when  required  in  new  factories. 

The  staffs  of  the  chemical  departments  of  Woolwich 
Arsenal  and  other  Government  factories  were  consider- 
ably augmented,  as  also  that  of  the  Government 
Laboratory,  which,  as  recently  published  reports  show, 
was  largely  responsible  for  the  examination  of  food- 
stuffs and  many  other  requirements  of  the  Expe- 
ditionary Forces, 


192       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

In  previous  wars  the  authorities  had  considered 
officers  of  the  R.A.M.C.  sufficiently  trained  for  all 
necessary  military  duties  involving  chemical  know- 
ledge, but  in  the  recent  conflict,  with  an  unpre- 
cedented demand  for  medical  men,  qualified  chemists 
volunteered  in  such  numbers  as  to  give  practical 
force  to  the  suggestion  that  they  should  be  engaged 
for  the  purification  and  examination  of  water  supplies 
and  for  dealing  with  matters  of  hygiene  requiring 
chemical  knowledge.  As  a  result  many  received  com- 
missions and  were  engaged  for  scientific  work,  not 
only  with  the  R.A.M.C.,  but  also  with  the  R.A.F., 
A.S.C.,  A.O.D.,  and  other  units,  as  well  as  with  the 
Secret  Service.  Attached  to  various  forces  at  home, 
with  the  armies  on  the  Continent,  in  Asia,  and  in 
Africa,  chemists  thus  rendered  valuable  service. 

In  consequence  of  methods  of  offence  initiated  by 
the  enemy,  such  as  the  employment  of  poisonous  gases, 
there  arose  a  further  demand  for  men  with  training  in 
chemistry  for  service  in  the  field.  Rumours  that  the 
enemy  intended  to  employ  such  means  reached  the 
Allied  lines  in  April,  1915,  but  were  not  believed  ;  so 
that  when  the  first  attack  with  chlorine  gas  was  made, 
our  troops  were  quite  unprepared.  Steps  had  to  be 
taken  in  the  direction  of  retaliation.  For  the  duties 
involved  the  authorities  deemed  it  expedient  to  enlist 
men  with  chemical  training,  rather  than  entrust  them 
to  men  without  any  scientific  knowledge,  and  the 
unit  formed  was  a  fighting  force.  With  the  assistance 
of  the  universities  and  technical  colleges  and  the 
various  bodies  interested  in  chemistry,  an  entirely  new 
force  was  brought  into  existence.  At  that  time  there 
was  no  question  of  compulsion,  yet  it  was  raised  with 
little  difficulty,  being  subsequently  augmented  by  the 
addition  of  other  troops.  The  men  went  voluntarily, 


CHEMISTS  IN  WAR  193 

and  were  sent  abroad  at  very  short  notice,  and  after 
short  training  went  into  action.  The  officers  were 
mainly  selected  from  chemists  who  already  held  com- 
missions, while  sergeants  and  corporals  with  know- 
ledge of  chemistry  were  transferred  from  other 
units.  That  they  did  their  work  well  is  shown  by  the 
following  abstracts  from  dispatches  of  Lord  French 
and  Sir  Douglas  Haig  : — 

LORD  FRENCH,  October  I5th,  1915  : — 

Owing  to  the  repeated  use  by  the  enemy  of  asphyxiating 
gases  in  their  attacks  on  our  positions,  I  have  been  com- 
pelled to  resort  to  similar  methods  ;  and  a  detachment  was 
organised  for  this  purpose,  which  took  part  in  the  opera- 
tions commencing  on  the  25th  September  for  the  first  time. 

Although  the  enemy  was  known  to  have  been  prepared 
for  such  reprisals,  our  gas  attack  met  with  marked  success, 
and  produced  a  demoralising  effect  in  some  of  the  opposing 
units,  of  which  ample  evidence  was  forthcoming  in  the 
captured  trenches. 

The  men  who  undertook  this  work  carried  out  their 
unfamiliar  duties  during  a  heavy  bombardment  with  con- 
spicuous gallantry  and  coolness;  and  I  feel  confident  in 
their  ability  to  more  than  hold  their  own  should  the  enemy 
again  resort  to  this  method  of  warfare. 

SIR  DOUGLAS  HAIG,  May  igth,  1916  : — 

The  valuable  nature  of  the  work  performed  by  the 
officers  of  the  Central  Laboratory  and  the  chemical  advisers 
with  the  Armies  in  investigations  into  the  nature  of  the 
gases  and  other  new  substances  used  in  hostile  attacks,  and 
in  devising  and  perfecting  means  of  protecting  our  troops 
against  them,  is  deserving  of  recognition.  The  efforts  of 
these  officers  materially  contributed  to  the  failure  of  the 
Germans  in  their  attack  of  I9th  December,  1915,  as  well  as 
in  the  various  gas  attacks  since  made. 

SIR  DOUGLAS  HAIG,  December  23rd,  1916  : — 

The  employment  by  the  enemy  of  gas  and  of  liquid 
flame  as  weapons  of  offence  compelled  us  not  only  to  dis- 
cover ways  to  protect  our  troops  from  their  effects,  but  also 
o 


194      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

to  devise  means  to  make  use  of  the  same  instruments  of 
destruction.  Great  fertility  of  invention  has  been  shown, 
and  very  great  credit  is  due  to  the  special  personnel  em- 
ployed for  the  rapidity  and  success  with  which  these  new 
arms  have  been  developed  and  perfected,  and  for  the  very 
great  devotion  to  duty  they  have  displayed  in  a  difficult 
and  dangerous  service.  The  Army  owes  its  thanks  to  the 
chemists,  physiologists,  and  physicists  of  the  highest  rank 
who  devoted  their  energies  to  enabling  us  to  surpass  the 
enemy  in  the  use  of  a  means  of  warfare  which  took  the 
civilised  world  by  surprise.  Our  own  experience  of  the 
numerous  experiments  and  trials  necessary  before  gas  and 
flame  could  be  used,  of  the  great  preparations  which  had  to 
be  made  for  their  manufacture,  and  of  the  special  training 
required  for  the  personnel  employed,  shows  that  the  em- 
ployment of  such  methods  by  the  Germans  was  not  the 
result  of  a  desperate  decision,  but  had  been  prepared  for 
deliberately. 

Since  we  have  been  compelled,  in  self-defence,  to  use 
similar  methods,  it  is  satisfactory  to  be  able  to  record  on 
the  evidence  of  prisoners,  of  documents  captured,  and  of 
our  own  observation,  that  the  enemy  has  suffered  heavy 
casualties  from  our  gas  attacks,  while  the  means  of  pro- 
tection adopted  by  us  have  proved  thoroughly  effective. 

Sir  Douglas  Haig,  referring  to  the  work  of  the  Royal 
Engineers,  in  his  despatch  on  the  March  (1918)  Retreat, 
published  on  October  22nd,  1918  : — 

On  different  occasions,  and  particularly  on  the  Third 
Army  Front  at  the  commencement  of  the  Geiman  offen- 
sive, personnel  of  the  Special  Brigade  (Gas  Services) 
became  involved  in  the  infantry  battle,  and  behaved  with 
a  like  gallantry  to  that  which  they  always  displayed  in  the 
performance  of  their  special  duties. 

Finally, in  the  "  Victory  "dispatch,  yth  January,  1919, 
after  detailing  the  operations  of  the  Gas  Services  :— 

In  all  these  different  operations,  all  ranks  of  the  Gas 
Services  have  shown  their  accustomed  courage  and  devotion 
to  duty. 

High  qualifications  were  'unnecessary  for  the  work 


CHEMISTS  IN  WAR  195 

of  the  rank  and  file,  but  many  very  competent  men 
joined,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  incidentally  that  it 
was  remarked  on  an  early  occasion  that  generally 
speaking  the  best  qualified  chemists  proved  the  best 
soldiers.  The  majority  of  the  university  graduates  and 
men  possessing  recognised  diplomas,  who  originally 
enlisted  as  corporals,  subsequently  received  com- 
missions, and  when  the  force  was  more  completely 
organised  a  considerable  number  were  withdrawn  and 
transferred  to  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  in 'order  that 
their  services  might  be  available  in  work  of  a  more 
scientific  character. 

In  December,  1915,  the  enemy  employed  phosgene  ; 
but  by  that  time  means  of  protection  had  been  supplied 
and  when  the  danger  was  increased  by  greater  gas 
concentration,  more  efficient  respirators  were  pro- 
vided. In  the  course  of  time,  the  gas  cloud  was 
largely  superseded  by  the  use  of  shells  containing 
noxious  liquids  or  solids  which  became  vaporised  by 
the  explosion.  Lachrymatory  shells  were  the  first  of 
this  order,  but  were  soon  followed  by  others  more 
poisonous  and  deadly  in  effect,  each  in  turn  demanding 
counteracting  measures.  Thus  the  researches  of  the 
laboratory  were  utilised  for  providing  methods  of 
offence  and  defence. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  fact  that  during 
the  campaign  against  the  rebels  in  South  Africa  and 
the  Germans  in  South-West  Africa  chemists  were 
attached,  on  the  personal  order  of  General  Botha,  to 
the  different  brigades  and  rendered  valuable  service. 

From  the  experience  gained  in  the  campaign  it  is 
clearly  advisable  that  the  State  should  have  control 
of  such  an  organisation  of  professional  chemists  as  to 
ensure  at  any  time  their  efficient  service  in  the  many 


196       THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 

requirements  of  the  naval,  military,  and  air  forces.  In 
addition  to  competent  chemical  advisers  of  undoubted 
standing,  the  following  appear  to  be  essential : — 

Chemists  to  control  the  manufacture  of  munitions,  ex- 
plosives, metals,  leather,  rubber,  oils,  gases,  food,  drugs. 

Chemists  for  the  analysis  of  all  such  materials,  for 
research,  and  for  Secret  Service  purposes. 

Chemists,  on  active  service,  to  assist  in  the  control 
of  water  supplies,  in  the  detection  of  poison  in  streams, 
in  the  analysis  of  water  and  food,  in  the  disposal  of 
sewage,  and  in  other  hygienic  matters. 

Chemists,  both  at  home  and  on  active  service,  to 
assist  in  devising  safeguards  against  enemy  contri- 
vances of  a  scientific  nature,  and  methods  of  offence 
to  meet  the  same,  as  well  as  for  the  instruction  of  troops 
in  such  matters. 

It  has  been  called  a  "  chemists'  war  "  and  an  "  en- 
gineers' war."  Many  regarded  it  largely  as  a  conflict 
between  the  men  of  science  of  the  countries  engaged. 
Our  chemists  were  not  dismayed  at  that,  but  it  was 
impossible  to  foresee  to  what  length  the  enemy  was 
prepared  to  go  in  the  application  of  science  to  warfare, 
and  we  cannot  reproach  ourselves  with  having  set  any 
example  of  frightfulness. 

To  sum  the  matter  up,  chemists  met  the  situa- 
tion with  a  spirit  of  true  patriotism  and  were 
promptly  organised  for  the  service  required  of  them. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  hope  that,  as  the  discoveries 
of  science  .have  been  applied  to  the  destruction  of 
humanity,  they  may  now  be  devoted  more  and  more  to 
the  furtherance  of  the  arts  of  peace. 

British  chemistry,  which  has  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  war,  will  undoubtedly  contribute  to  making 
good  the  ravages  of  war  and  the  building  up  of  our 
industries  and  commerce. 


INDEX 


Admiralty  Chemist,  176 
Adulteration  Acts,  1 1 1  et  seq. 
,  against  fraud  and  injury, 

119 

Advertising,  134 
Agricultural    Analysts,    Official, 

128 

Agriculture,  Board  of,  177 
A.  I.C.  Examination,  65 
Alchemists,  18 
Alkali  Inspectors,  177 
Analyst,  The,  103 
Analysts,  Works,  147 
Apothecaries,  19  et  seq. 
Applied  Chemistry,  141 
Appointments  Register,  95 
Association  of  British  Chemical 

Manufacturers,   1 70 
Attfield,  J.,  27 

Bacon,  Francis,  41 

— ,  Roger,  21 

Bank  of  England,  178 

Becher,  78 

Bell,  Jacob— History  of  Phar- 
macy, 21 

Berkenhout,  G.,  27 

Blyth,  A.  Wynter,  no 

Board  of  Agriculture,  178 

Trade,  178 

Boerhaave,  26 

Brampton,  Lord,  139. 

British  Association  of  Chemists, 
49,  53 

Certificates,  Trade,  134 

Charlatanism,  132 

Chemical  Engineers,  144,  170 

—  Industry,  141  et  seq. 

—  Manufacturers,    Association 
of  British,  170 

Chemical  News,  105 

Chemical  Society,  The,  29,  100    I 


Chemical  Technologists,    170 

—  Technology,  Syllabus,  153 
Chemical  Trade  Journal,  105 
Chemist  and  Druggist,  16  et  seq. 
Chemist  and  Pharmacist  (Foreign 

equivalents),  38 
— ,  Definition  of,  28,  33 
— ,  Standard  of  qualification,  50 
— ,  The  designation  of,  16  et  seq. 
Chemistry  and  the  State,  172 
— ,  Early  records  of,  17 
Chemists,  Dispensing,  16  et  seq. 
— ,  Remuneration  of  Industrial, 

90 

Official,  178 

Classics,  4 

Conditions  of  Practice,  78 
Conduct,  Professional,  130 
Consulting  Chemical  Engineers, 

144,  170 

—  Technologists,  170 
Control  Chemists,  Works,  152 
Crookes,  Sir  William,  105,  112 

Degrees, in  Science,  44  etseq.,  59, 71 
Department    of    Scientific    and 

Industrial  Research,   61,    152, 

180,  181 
Druggists,  1 6  et  seq. 

Education,  Preliminary,  i 
Egyptian  industries,  17 
Employment,  95 
Engineering,  Chemical,  i$<\etseq. 
Engineers,  Chemical,  144,  170 
English  Language,  2 
Ethics,  130 
Etiquette,  130 
Evening  classes,  46,  47 
Evidence,  Legal,  135 
Examinations,  65  et  seq. 

F.I.C.,  76 

Federal  Council,  104 


197 


198      THE  PROFESSION  OF  CHEMISTRY 


Fees,  Professional,  131 
Fertilisers    and    Feeding    Stuffs 

Act,  128 

Fleming,  A.  P.  M.,  151 
Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  in  et  seq. 

,  Chemistry  of,  66,  1 10 

Forensic  Chemistry,  135 
Foster,  Carey,  80 
French,  Lord,  193 

German  Chemists,  94 
German  Chemical  trade,  94 
Government  Chemist,  174 

—  Chemistry,  172 

—  Laboratory,     113—114,     174, 
191 

Greek  philosophy,  78 

Haig,  Sir  Douglas,  193 
Hassall,  A.,  in 
Home  Office,  177 

Industrial   and   Chemical   Engi- 
neering, 105 
Industrial  Chemistry,  141  et  seq. 

—  Research,  147 

Institute  of  Chemistry,  3,  39,  43 
et  seq.,  101,  108,  116,  119,  153, 
181,  191 

Institutions,  Chemical,  99  et  seq. 

Jackson,  Sir  Herbert,  181 
Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  5,  28,  134 
Journals,  Chemical,  105 

Kelvin,  80 

Latin,  2 

Lectures  (Institute  of  Chemistry) , 

76 

Legal  evidence,  135 
Libraries,  Chemical,  106 
Lichnowsky,  94 
Local  Government  Boards,  112, 

116,  177 
London  County  Council,  178 

Medical  Officers  of  Health,  120 
Metallurgical  and  Chemical  En- 
gineering, 105 
"  Minimum  Wage,"  107 
Ministry  of  Munitions,  177,  182 
Mint,  Royal,  178 


Nature,  106 

Notebooks  (practical  chemistry), 
57 

Official  Agricultural  Analysts, 
128 

"  Official  Chemical  Appoint- 
ments," 1 80 

Optical  Munitions  and  Glass- 
ware, 182 

Optional  subjects  (training),  45, 

54.  58 
Organisation,  Professional,  96 

Paracelsus,  16,  18 
Patent  Office,  178 
Pharmaceutical  Society,  29 
Pharmacist  and  Chemist  (foreign 
equivalents),  38 

—  Definition  of,  28,  33 
Pharmacists,  16  et  seq. 
Pharmacopoeia,  32,  33 
Pharmacy    Acts    (1852),    (1868) 

and  (1908),  32,  33,  37 

—  Definition  of,  28 

—  Qualifications  for,  34 
Physicians,  College  of,  20 
Physics,  57 

Playfair,  Lord,  113,  172 
Poisoning  cases,  128,  139 
Practice,  Branches  of,  81 

—  Conditions  of  private,  82 

—  Prospects  and  conditions  of, 

78. 
Preliminary  Education,  i 

—  Examination,  14 
Professional  Conduct  and   Pro- 
cedure, 130 

—  Organisation,  96 

—  Training,  40  et  seq. 
Prospects  of  practice,  78 
Public     Analyst     and     Medical 

Officer  of  Health,  Relations  of, 

I2O 

—  Analysts,  no 

Society  of,  103,  in 

Qualifications  of,  116 

Remuneration  of,  n  jet  seq. 

Redwood,   Theophilus,    30 
Remuneration,   88  et  seq.,    106, 

163 
Reports,  Professional,  84,  134 


INDEX 


199 


Research  Association  (Cam- 
bridge), 63 

Research  Chemists,  144,  147 

,  Works,  147 

Research  (College),  58 

— ,  Department  of  Scientific  and 
Industrial,  61,  152,  180,  181, 

— ,  Industrial,  147 

Restriction  of  practice,  sug- 
gested, 99 

Royal  Air  Force,  177,  192 

—  Society,  23,  100 

Ruskin,  91 

Salaries,  88  et  seq.,  106,  163 

Salisbury,  Lord,  172 

Sampling,  83 

Science  in  Civil  Service  Examina- 
tions, 9,  172 

Schools,  6  et  seq.,  187 

Scientific  Witnesses,  135 

Societies,  99  et  seq. 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry, 
102,  143 

Journal  of,  144 

Public  Analysts,  103,  in, 

119,  181 

Soliciting  practice,  135 


"  Somerset  House,"  113-114, 174 
Specialisation,  8,  58,  72 
Spirit,  Recovery  of,  85 
Stevenson,  Sir  Thomas,^  139 
Stills,  Licences  for,  84 
Students,  Registration  of,  43 
Subjects  of  training,  additional, 
45.  54.  58 

Teaching,  183 
Technical  Education,  40 

—  Institutions,  40 
Technology,  Training  in,  72 
Trade  Intelligence  Department, 

170 

Trade  "  Puffs,"  134 
Trade  Union,  106 
Training,  Cost  of,  64 

—  specialised,  58,  72 

War,  Chemists  in,  174,  190 
War  Industries,  180 
War  Office,  177 
Women  Chemists,  189 
Woolwich  Arsenal,  177,  191 
Works  Analysts,  146 

—  Chemists,  144 

—  Control  Chemists,  152 


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